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  • 121 time

    time [taɪm]
    temps ⇒ 1 (a)-(e), 1 (m), 1 (o) durée ⇒ 1 (e) heure ⇒ 1 (f), 1 (g), 1 (m) moment ⇒ 1 (i), 1 (j) fois ⇒ 1 (k) époque ⇒ 1 (o) fin ⇒ 1 (r) mesure ⇒ 1 (u) chronométrer ⇒ 2 (a) fixer l'heure de ⇒ 2 (b) choisir le moment de ⇒ 2 (c) régler ⇒ 2 (d)
    1 noun
    ∎ as time goes by avec le temps;
    ∎ the price has gone up over time le prix a augmenté avec le temps;
    ∎ it's only a matter or a question of time ce n'est qu'une question de temps;
    ∎ these things take time cela ne se fait pas du jour au lendemain;
    ∎ to have time on one's hands or time to spare avoir du temps;
    ∎ time hangs heavy on his hands le temps lui pèse, il trouve le temps long;
    ∎ since the dawn of time depuis la nuit des temps;
    ∎ time flies le temps passe vite;
    ∎ doesn't time fly! comme le temps passe vite!;
    ∎ time heals all wounds le temps guérit tout;
    ∎ only time will tell seul l'avenir nous le dira;
    ∎ time will prove me right l'avenir me donnera raison;
    ∎ it's a race against time c'est une course contre la montre;
    ∎ they're working against time to save her ils ne disposent que de très peu de temps pour la sauver;
    ∎ time is on our side le temps joue en notre faveur;
    ∎ time out of mind de temps immémorial, de toute éternité;
    ∎ time is money le temps, c'est de l'argent;
    ∎ proverb time and tide wait for no man les événements n'attendent personne
    ∎ there's no time to lose il n'y a pas de temps à perdre;
    ∎ he lost no time in telling me il s'est empressé de me le dire;
    ∎ to make up for lost time rattraper le temps perdu;
    ∎ to make good/poor time doing sth mettre peu de temps/longtemps à faire qch;
    ∎ I passed the time reading j'ai passé mon temps à lire;
    ∎ take your time prenez votre temps;
    ∎ take your time over it prenez le temps qu'il faudra;
    ∎ it took me all my time just to get here! avec le temps que j'ai mis pour arriver ici!;
    ∎ you took your time about it! tu en as mis du temps!;
    ∎ she took the time to explain it to us elle a pris le temps de nous l'expliquer;
    ∎ she made the time to read the report elle a pris le temps de lire le rapport;
    ∎ I can always make time for you pour vous, je suis toujours là;
    ∎ I spend half/all my time cleaning up je passe la moitié de/tout mon temps à faire le ménage;
    ∎ half the time he doesn't know what he's doing la moitié du temps il ne sait pas ce qu'il fait;
    ∎ most of the time la plupart du temps;
    ∎ he was ill part or some of the time il a été malade une partie du temps;
    ∎ it rained part or some of the time il a plu par moments;
    ∎ we spend the better part of our time working nous passons le plus clair de notre temps à travailler;
    ∎ I start in three weeks' time je commence dans trois semaines;
    ∎ they'll have finished the project in three weeks' time ils auront terminé le projet dans trois semaines;
    ∎ all in good time! chaque chose en son temps!;
    ∎ I'll finish it in my own good time je le finirai quand bon me semblera;
    ∎ in no time (at all), in next to no time en un rien de temps, en moins de rien
    ∎ I haven't (the) time to do the shopping je n'ai pas le temps de faire les courses;
    ∎ I've no time for gossip je n'ai pas de temps à perdre en bavardages;
    ∎ I've no time for that sort of attitude je ne supporte pas ce genre de mentalité;
    ∎ he has no time for sycophants/for laziness il n'a pas de temps à perdre avec les flatteurs/les paresseux;
    ∎ my time is my own mon temps m'appartient;
    ∎ my time is not my own je ne suis pas libre de mon temps;
    ∎ we've just got time to catch the train on a juste le temps d'attraper le train;
    ∎ that doesn't leave them much time to get ready cela ne leur laisse guère de temps pour se préparer;
    ∎ you'll have to find the time to see her il faut que tu trouves le temps de la voir;
    ∎ you have plenty of time to finish it vous avez largement le temps de le finir;
    ∎ we've got plenty of time or all the time in the world nous avons tout le temps
    (d) (while) temps m;
    ∎ after a time après un (certain) temps;
    ∎ a long time longtemps;
    ∎ a long time ago il y a longtemps;
    ∎ it's a long time since we've been out for a meal together ça fait longtemps que nous ne sommes pas sortis dîner ensemble;
    ∎ she's been dreaming of this for a long time now voilà longtemps qu'elle en rêve;
    ∎ he waited for a long time il a attendu longtemps;
    ∎ I worked for a long time as a translator j'ai travaillé (pendant) longtemps comme traducteur;
    ∎ for a long time he refused to eat meat il a (pendant) longtemps refusé de manger de la viande;
    ∎ it'll be a long time before I do that again je ne suis pas près de recommencer, je ne recommencerai pas de si tôt ou de sitôt;
    ∎ the car takes a long time to warm up la voiture met longtemps à chauffer;
    ∎ you took a long time! tu en as mis du temps!, il t'en a fallu du temps!;
    ∎ familiar long time no see! ça faisait longtemps!;
    ∎ a short time peu de temps;
    ∎ after a short time peu (de temps) après;
    ∎ a short time before their wedding peu avant leur mariage;
    ∎ she's going to stay with us for a short time elle va rester avec nous pendant quelque temps;
    ∎ in the shortest possible time dans les plus brefs délais, le plus vite ou tôt possible;
    ∎ after some time au bout de quelque temps, après un certain temps;
    ∎ some time after their trip quelque temps après leur voyage;
    ∎ some time ago il y a quelque temps;
    ∎ for some time past depuis quelque temps;
    ∎ for some time (to come) pendant quelque temps;
    ∎ it's the best film I've seen for some time c'est le meilleur film que j'aie vu depuis un moment;
    ∎ it will take (quite) some time to repair il va falloir pas mal de temps pour le réparer;
    ∎ all this time pendant tout ce temps
    ∎ the flying time to Madrid is two hours la durée du vol pour Madrid est de deux heures;
    ∎ the cooking time is two hours le temps de cuisson est de deux heures;
    ∎ the winner's time was under four minutes le gagnant a fait un temps de moins de quatre minutes;
    ∎ 1 minute 34 seconds is her best/a good time 1 minute 34 secondes, c'est son meilleur temps/un bon temps;
    ∎ it takes time cela prend du temps;
    ∎ how much time will it take? combien de temps cela prendra-t-il?;
    ∎ she finished in half the time it took me to finish elle a mis deux fois moins de temps que moi pour finir
    (f) (by clock) heure f;
    ∎ what time is it?, what's the time? quelle heure est-il?;
    ∎ what time do you make it? quelle heure avez-vous?;
    ∎ do you have the time? vous avez l'heure?;
    ∎ have you got the right time on you? avez-vous l'heure juste?;
    ∎ the time is twenty past three il est trois heures vingt;
    ∎ what time are we leaving? à quelle heure partons-nous?;
    ∎ do you know how to tell the time? est-ce que tu sais lire l'heure?;
    ∎ could you tell me the time? pourriez-vous me dire l'heure (qu'il est)?;
    ∎ have you seen the time? avez-vous vu l'heure?;
    ∎ I looked at the time j'ai regardé l'heure;
    ∎ this old watch still keeps good time cette vieille montre est toujours à l'heure ou exacte;
    ∎ at this time of day à cette heure de la journée;
    ∎ we'll have to keep an eye on the time il faudra surveiller l'heure;
    ∎ it is almost time to leave/for my bus il est presque l'heure de partir/de mon bus;
    ∎ it's time I was going il est temps que je parte;
    ∎ it's dinner time, it's time for dinner c'est l'heure de dîner;
    ∎ there you are, it's about time! te voilà, ce n'est pas trop tôt!;
    ∎ I wouldn't give him the time of day je ne lui dirais même pas bonjour;
    ∎ to pass the time of day with sb échanger quelques mots avec qn
    ∎ local time heure f locale;
    ∎ it's 5 o'clock Tokyo time il est 5 heures, heure de Tokyo
    ∎ is the bus running to time? est-ce que le bus est à l'heure?;
    ∎ within the required time dans les délais requis
    ∎ at that time I was in Madrid à ce moment-là, j'étais à Madrid ou j'étais alors à Madrid;
    ∎ I worked for her at one time à un moment donné j'ai travaillé pour elle;
    ∎ at the present time en ce moment, à présent;
    ∎ he is president at the present time il est actuellement président;
    ∎ at the time of delivery au moment de la livraison;
    ∎ at a later time plus tard;
    ∎ at a given time à un moment donné;
    ∎ at any one time à la fois;
    ∎ there's room for 15 people at any one time il y a de la place pour 15 personnes à la fois;
    ∎ an inconvenient time un moment inopportun;
    ∎ you called at a most inconvenient time vous avez appelé à un très mauvais moment;
    ∎ there are times when I could scream il y a des moments où j'ai envie de hurler;
    ∎ at the best of times même quand tout va bien;
    ∎ even at the best of times he is not that patient même dans ses bons moments il n'est pas particulièrement patient;
    ∎ at no time did I agree to that je n'ai jamais donné mon accord pour cela;
    ∎ by the time you get this… le temps que tu reçoives ceci…, quand tu auras reçu ceci…;
    ∎ by that time it will be too late à ce moment-là il sera trop tard;
    ∎ by that time we'll all be dead d'ici là nous serons tous morts;
    ∎ by this time next week d'ici une semaine, dans une semaine;
    ∎ this time next week la semaine prochaine à cette heure-ci;
    ∎ this time last week il y a exactement une semaine;
    ∎ from that time on we had nothing to do with them à partir de ce moment-là, nous avons refusé d'avoir affaire à eux;
    ∎ in between times entre-temps;
    ∎ some time or other un jour ou l'autre;
    ∎ some time next month dans le courant du mois prochain;
    ∎ until such time as I hear from them jusqu'à ce que ou en attendant que j'aie de leurs nouvelles
    ∎ she chose her time badly elle a mal choisi son moment;
    ∎ this is no time for you to leave ce n'est pas le moment de partir;
    ∎ now's our time to tell her c'est maintenant que nous devrions ou voici venu le moment de le lui dire;
    ∎ now is the time to invest c'est maintenant qu'il faut investir;
    ∎ when the time comes le moment venu, quand le moment sera venu;
    ∎ we'll talk about that when the time comes nous en parlerons en temps utile;
    ∎ the time has come to make a stand c'est le moment d'avoir le courage de ses opinions;
    ∎ the time for talking is past ce n'est plus le moment de parler;
    ∎ it's about time we taught her a lesson il est grand temps que nous lui donnions une bonne leçon;
    ∎ there's a time and a place for everything il y a un temps et un lieu pour ou à tout
    (k) (occasion, instance) fois f;
    ∎ I'll forgive you this time je vous pardonne cette fois-ci ou pour cette fois;
    ∎ each or every time chaque fois;
    ∎ she succeeds every time elle réussit à chaque fois;
    ∎ the last time he came la dernière fois qu'il est venu;
    ∎ the time before la fois précédente ou d'avant;
    ∎ another or some other time une autre fois;
    ∎ I called her three times je l'ai appelée trois fois;
    ∎ many times bien des fois, très souvent;
    ∎ many a time I've wondered… je me suis demandé plus d'une ou bien des fois…;
    ∎ several times plusieurs fois;
    ∎ several times in the past plusieurs fois déjà;
    ∎ he asked me several times if… il m'a demandé plusieurs fois si…;
    ∎ it costs 15 cents a time ça coûte 15 cents à chaque fois;
    ∎ the one time I'm winning, he wants to stop playing pour une fois que je gagne, il veut arrêter de jouer;
    ∎ nine times out of ten the machine doesn't work neuf fois sur dix la machine ne marche pas;
    ∎ we'll have to decide some time or other tôt ou tard ou un jour ou l'autre il va falloir nous décider;
    ∎ do you remember that time we went to Germany? tu te rappelles la fois où nous sommes allés en Allemagne?;
    ∎ there's always a first time il y a un début à tout;
    ∎ I've told you a hundred times! je te l'ai dit vingt ou cent fois!;
    ∎ give me a good detective story every time! rien ne vaut un bon roman policier!
    ∎ to have a good time bien s'amuser;
    ∎ she's had a terrible time of it elle a beaucoup souffert;
    ∎ I had the time of my life jamais je ne me suis si bien ou autant amusé;
    ∎ we had an awful time at the picnic nous nous sommes ennuyés à mourir au pique-nique;
    ∎ it was a difficult time for all of us c'était une période difficile pour nous tous;
    ∎ she had a hard time bringing up five children alone ça a été difficile pour elle d'élever cinq enfants seule;
    ∎ to give sb a hard or rough or tough time en faire voir de dures à qn, en faire voir de toutes les couleurs à qn;
    ∎ what a time I had with him! (fun) qu'est-ce que j'ai pu m'amuser avec lui!; (trouble) qu'est-ce qu'il m'en a fait voir!
    ∎ to put in time faire des heures (de travail);
    ∎ to work part/full time travailler à temps partiel/à plein temps;
    ∎ British in company time, American on company time pendant les heures de travail;
    ∎ British in your own time, American on your own time pendant votre temps libre, en dehors des heures de travail
    ∎ we pay time and a half on weekends nous payons les heures du week-end une fois et demie le tarif normal;
    ∎ overtime is paid at double time les heures supplémentaires sont payées ou comptées double
    (o) (usu plural) (era) époque f, temps m;
    ∎ in Victorian times à l'époque victorienne;
    ∎ in the time of Henry IV à l'époque d'Henri IV, du temps d'Henri IV;
    ∎ in times past, in former times autrefois, jadis;
    ∎ in times to come à l'avenir;
    ∎ at one time, things were different autrefois ou dans le temps les choses étaient différentes;
    ∎ the house has seen better times la maison a connu des jours meilleurs;
    ∎ in happier times en un ou des temps plus heureux;
    ∎ in time or times of need/war en temps de pénurie/de guerre;
    ∎ time was when doctors made house calls il fut un temps où les médecins faisaient des visites à domicile;
    ∎ those were happy times! c'était le bon (vieux) temps!;
    ∎ times are hard les temps sont durs;
    ∎ in our time de nos jours;
    ∎ the times we live in l'époque f où nous vivons;
    ∎ in my time children didn't talk back de mon temps, les enfants ne répondaient pas;
    ∎ she was probably a good singer in her time en son temps, c'était sûrement une bonne chanteuse;
    ∎ it was a very popular car in its time c'était une voiture très populaire à l'époque (où elle est sortie);
    ∎ very advanced for its time très en avance sur son temps ou sur l'époque;
    ∎ to be ahead of or before one's time être en avance sur son époque ou sur son temps;
    ∎ to be behind the times être en retard sur son époque ou sur son temps;
    ∎ to keep up with the times vivre avec son temps;
    ∎ to move with the times évoluer avec son temps;
    ∎ times have changed autres temps, autres mœurs
    ∎ I've heard some odd things in my time! j'en ai entendu, des choses, dans ma vie!;
    ∎ it won't happen in our time nous ne serons pas là pour voir ça;
    ∎ if I had my time over again si j'avais à recommencer (ma vie);
    ∎ at my time of life à mon âge;
    ∎ that was before your time (birth) vous n'étiez pas encore né; (arrival) vous n'étiez pas encore là;
    ∎ her time has come (childbirth) elle arrive à son terme; (death) son heure est venue ou a sonné; (success) son heure est venue;
    ∎ he died before his time il est mort avant l'âge
    ∎ it's hot for the time of year il fait chaud pour la saison
    ∎ time's up (on exam, visit) c'est l'heure; (on meter, telephone) le temps est écoulé;
    ∎ British time (gentlemen), please! (in pub) on ferme!;
    ∎ Sport the referee called time l'arbitre a sifflé la fin du match
    ∎ to buy sth on time acheter qch à tempérament ou à terme ou à crédit
    ∎ to do time faire de la taule;
    ∎ he's serving time for murder il est en taule pour meurtre
    (u) Music (tempo) mesure f; (note value) valeur f (d'une note);
    ∎ to keep time, to be in time être en mesure;
    ∎ he beat time with his foot il battait ou marquait la mesure du pied;
    ∎ in triple or three-part time à trois temps
    (v) Radio & Television espace m;
    ∎ to buy/to sell time on television acheter/vendre de l'espace publicitaire à la télévision
    ∎ to make time with sb (pursue) draguer qn; (be with) être avec qn□ (en couple) ; (have sex with) s'envoyer en l'air avec qn
    (a) (on clock → runner, worker, race) chronométrer;
    ∎ they timed her at four minutes a mile ils l'ont chronométrée ou ils ont chronométré son temps à quatre minutes au mille;
    ∎ time how long she takes to finish regardez combien de temps elle met pour finir;
    ∎ he timed his speech to last twenty minutes il a fait en sorte que son discours dure vingt minutes;
    ∎ to time an egg minuter le temps de cuisson d'un œuf
    (b) (schedule) fixer ou prévoir (l'heure de); Photography (exposure) calculer;
    ∎ they timed the attack for 6 o'clock l'attaque était prévue pour 6 heures
    (c) (choose right moment for) choisir ou calculer le moment de;
    ∎ she timed her entrance well elle a bien choisi le moment pour faire son entrée;
    ∎ he timed the blow perfectly il a frappé au bon moment;
    ∎ your remark was perfectly/badly timed votre observation est venue au bon/au mauvais moment
    (d) (synchronize) régler, ajuster;
    ∎ she tried to time her steps to the music elle essayait de régler ses pas sur la musique
    ∎ she's ten times cleverer than or as clever as he is elle est dix fois plus intelligente que lui;
    ∎ he ate four times as much cake as I did il a mangé quatre fois plus de gâteau que moi
    ∎ Mathematics 3 times 2 is 6 3 fois 2 font ou égalent 6;
    ∎ 1 times 6 is 6 une fois six fait ou égale six
    en avance;
    ∎ I'm ten minutes ahead of time j'ai dix minutes d'avance
    ∎ he talked all the time we were at lunch il a parlé pendant tout le déjeuner;
    ∎ he's been watching us all the time il n'a pas cessé de nous regarder;
    ∎ I knew it all the time je le savais depuis le début
    n'importe quand;
    ∎ come over any time venez quand vous voulez;
    ∎ you're welcome any time vous serez toujours le bienvenu;
    ∎ thanks for all your help - any time merci de votre aide - de rien
    ∎ for days at a time pendant des journées entières, des journées durant;
    ∎ to do two things at a time faire deux choses à la fois;
    ∎ take one book at a time prenez les livres un par un ou un (seul) livre à la fois;
    ∎ she ran up the stairs two at a time elle a monté les marches quatre à quatre
    à tous moments
    à toute heure;
    ∎ hot meals at any time repas chauds à toute heure;
    ∎ at any time of day or night à n'importe quelle heure du jour ou de la nuit;
    ∎ at any time during office hours n'importe quand pendant les heures de bureau;
    ∎ he could die at any time il peut mourir d'un moment à l'autre;
    ∎ if at any time… si à l'occasion…
    (a) (simultaneously) en même temps;
    ∎ they all spoke at the same time ils se sont mis à parler tous en même temps;
    ∎ they arrived at the same time (as) he did ils sont arrivés en même temps que lui
    (b) (yet) en même temps;
    ∎ she was pleased but at the same time a bit concerned elle était contente mais en même temps un peu inquiète
    (c) (nevertheless) pourtant, cependant;
    ∎ at the same time, we must not forget… pourtant ou cependant, il ne faut pas oublier…
    ∎ at the time of their wedding au moment de leur mariage;
    ∎ I didn't pay much attention at the time sur le moment, je n'ai pas fait vraiment attention
    parfois, par moments
    en retard;
    ∎ we're a bit behind time nous sommes légèrement en retard;
    ∎ the project was running behind time le projet avait du retard
    pendant un (certain) temps;
    ∎ for a time, he was unable to walk pendant un certain temps, il n'a pas pu marcher
    pour toujours
    pour le moment
    de temps en temps, de temps à autre
    ∎ she'll come to her senses in time elle finira par revenir à la raison;
    ∎ he'll forget about it in (the course of) time il finira par l'oublier (avec le temps)
    ∎ let me know in (good) time prévenez-moi (bien) à l'avance;
    ∎ she arrived in time for the play elle est arrivée à l'heure pour la pièce;
    ∎ you're just in time to greet our guests tu arrives juste à temps pour accueillir nos invités;
    ∎ I'll be back in time for the film je serai de retour à temps pour le film
    (c) Music en mesure;
    ∎ to be or keep in time (with the music) être en mesure (avec la musique)
    en un rien de temps
    de tous les temps
    ∎ why now of all times? pourquoi faut-il que ce soit juste maintenant?
    à l'heure;
    ∎ to run on time (trains etc) être à l'heure;
    ∎ she arrived right on time elle est arrivée juste à l'heure;
    ∎ is the bus on time? est-ce que le bus est à l'heure?
    ∎ Music he got out of time il a perdu la mesure
    maintes et maintes fois
    temps m libre;
    ∎ what do you do in your time off? qu'est-ce que vous faites de votre temps libre?
    (a) Sport temps m mort; (in chess match) temps m de repos;
    ∎ Sport to take time out faire un temps mort
    ∎ I took time out to travel (from work) je me suis mis en congé pour voyager; (from studies) j'ai interrompu mes études pour voyager;
    ∎ she took time out to read the report elle a pris le temps de lire le rapport
    ►► time of arrival heure f d'arrivée;
    Stock Exchange time bargain marché m à terme;
    Finance time bill traite f à terme; also figurative time bomb bombe f à retardement;
    ∎ figurative a demographic time bomb une situation démographique qui menace d'exploser;
    ∎ the situation is like a time bomb ticking away la situation est explosive;
    ∎ figurative they're sitting on a time bomb ils sont assis sur un volcan;
    time capsule capsule f témoin (qui doit servir de témoignage historique aux générations futures);
    Industry time card carte f ou fiche f de pointage;
    time chart (showing time zones) carte f des fuseaux horaires; (showing events) table f d'événements historiques; (showing planning) calendrier m, planning m;
    time check (on radio) rappel m de l'heure; (in cycling, skiing, motor racing) contrôle m du temps intermédiaire;
    Grammar time clause proposition f temporelle;
    Industry time clock pointeuse f;
    time code code m temporel;
    time of departure heure f de départ;
    American Finance time deposit dépôt m à terme;
    time difference décalage m horaire;
    Finance time draft traite f à terme;
    time exposure (of film) (temps m de) pose f; (photograph) photo f prise en pose;
    time frame délai m;
    ∎ what's our time frame? de combien de temps disposons-nous?;
    time fuse détonateur m ou fusée f à retardement;
    time lag (delay) décalage m dans le temps; (in time zones) décalage m horaire;
    time lapse intervalle m, laps m de temps;
    time limit (gen) délai m, date f limite; Law délai m de forclusion;
    ∎ there is a strict time limit for applications il y a un délai impératif ou de rigueur pour la remise des dossiers de candidature;
    ∎ we'll have to set ourselves a time limit for the work il va falloir nous imposer un délai pour finir ce travail;
    ∎ the work must be completed within the time limit le travail doit être terminé avant la date limite;
    Finance time loan emprunt m à terme;
    time machine machine f à voyager dans le temps;
    time management gestion f du temps de travail;
    Marketing time pricing fixation f des prix en fonction du moment;
    time sheet feuille f de présence;
    Radio time signal signal m ou top m horaire;
    Music time signature indication f de la mesure;
    Computing time slice tranche f de temps;
    Computing time slicing temps m partagé;
    time slot créneau m ou tranche f horaire;
    time switch (for oven, heating) minuteur m; (for lighting) minuterie f;
    time travel voyage m dans le temps;
    time traveller personne f qui voyage dans le temps;
    Sport time trial course f contre la montre, contre-la-montre m inv;
    Telecommunications time unit unité f;
    time value Music valeur f (d'une note); Finance valeur f temporelle;
    time warp (in science fiction) faille f spatio-temporelle;
    ∎ it's like living in a time warp c'est comme si on vivait hors du temps;
    ∎ the country seems to have entered a time warp le temps semble s'être arrêté dans le pays;
    ∎ the house/company seems to be caught in a 19th century time warp la maison/la société semble ne pas avoir changé depuis le XIXème siècle;
    time zone fuseau m horaire
    ✾ Book 'The Time Machine' Wells 'La Machine à explorer le temps'
    ⓘ I may be some time Ce sont les mots ("je risque d'en avoir pour un certain temps") qu'aurait prononcés le capitaine Oates lorsqu'il sortit de la tente qu'il occupait avec le capitaine Scott au cours de leur expédition de 1912 au pôle sud. Oates souffrait de gelures multiples et afin de ne pas ralentir la progression de ses camarades, il décida de se sacrifier en disparaissant dans la tourmente. Cet épisode est censé symboliser les qualités d'héroïsme et d'abnégation associées au caractère britannique. Aujourd'hui, on emploie cette formule par allusion à Oates sur le mode humoristique lorsque l'on sort d'une pièce ou bien lorsqu'on va aux toilettes.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > time

  • 122 Applegath, Augustus

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    fl. 1816–58 London, England
    [br]
    English printer and manufacturer of printing machinery.
    [br]
    After Koenig and Bauer had introduced the machine printing-press and returned to Germany, it fell to Applegath and his mechanic brother-in-law Edward Cooper to effect improvements. In particular, Applegath succeeded Koenig and Bauer as machine specialist to The Times newspaper, then in the vanguard of printing technology.
    Applegath and Cooper first came into prominence when the Bank of England began to seek ways of reducing the number of forged banknotes. In 1816 Cooper patented a device for printing banknotes from curved stereotypes fixed to a cylinder. These were inked and printed by the rotary method. Although Applegath and Cooper were granted money to develop their invention, the Bank did not pursue it. The idea of rotary printing was interesting, but it was not followed up, possibly due to lack of demand.
    Applegath and Cooper were then engaged by John Walter of The Times to remedy defects in Koenig and Bauer's presses; in 1818 Cooper patented an improved method of inking the forme and Applegath also took out patents for improvements. In 1821 Applegath had enough experience of these presses to set up as a manufacturer of printing machinery in premises in Duke Street, Blackfriars, in London. Increases in the size and circulation of The Times led Walter to ask Applegath to build a faster press. In 1827 he produced a machine with the capacity of four presses, his steam-driven four-feeder press.
    Its flat form carrying the type passed under four impression cylinders in a row. It could make 4,200 impressions an hour and sufficed to print The Times for twenty years, until it was superseded by the rotary press devised by Hoe. By 1826, however, Applegath was in financial difficulties; he sold his Duke Street workshop to William Clowes, a book printer. In the following year he gave up being a full-time manufacturer of printing machinery and turned to silk printing. In 1830 he patented a machine for printing rolls of calico and silk from bent intaglio plates.
    In 1848 Applegath was persuaded by The Times to return to newspaper printing. He tackled rotary printing without the benefit of curved printing plates and roll paper feed, and he devised a large "type revolving" machine which set the pattern for newspaper printing-presses for some twenty years.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Moran, 1973, Printing Presses, London: Faber \& Faber.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Applegath, Augustus

  • 123 Bain, Alexander

    [br]
    b. October 1810 Watten, Scotland
    d. 2 January 1877 Kirkintilloch, Scotland
    [br]
    Scottish inventor and entrepreneur who laid the foundations of electrical horology and designed an electromagnetic means of transmitting images (facsimile).
    [br]
    Alexander Bain was born into a crofting family in a remote part of Scotland. He was apprenticed to a watchmaker in Wick and during that time he was strongly influenced by a lecture on "Heat, sound and electricity" that he heard in nearby Thurso. This lecture induced him to take up a position in Clerkenwell in London, working as a journeyman clockmaker, where he was able to further his knowledge of electricity by attending lectures at the Adelaide Gallery and the Polytechnic Institution. His thoughts naturally turned to the application of electricity to clockmaking, and despite a bitter dispute with Charles Wheatstone over priority he was granted the first British patent for an electric clock. This patent, taken out on 11 January 1841, described a mechanism for an electric clock, in which an oscillating component of the clock operated a mechanical switch that initiated an electromagnetic pulse to maintain the regular, periodic motion. This principle was used in his master clock, produced in 1845. On 12 December of the same year, he patented a means of using electricity to control the operation of steam railway engines via a steam-valve. His earliest patent was particularly far-sighted and anticipated most of the developments in electrical horology that occurred during the nineteenth century. He proposed the use of electricity not only to drive clocks but also to distribute time over a distance by correcting the hands of mechanical clocks, synchronizing pendulums and using slave dials (here he was anticipated by Steinheil). However, he was less successful in putting these ideas into practice, and his electric clocks proved to be unreliable. Early electric clocks had two weaknesses: the battery; and the switching mechanism that fed the current to the electromagnets. Bain's earth battery, patented in 1843, overcame the first defect by providing a reasonably constant current to drive his clocks, but unlike Hipp he failed to produce a reliable switch.
    The application of Bain's numerous patents for electric telegraphy was more successful, and he derived most of his income from these. They included a patent of 12 December 1843 for a form of fax machine, a chemical telegraph that could be used for the transmission of text and of images (facsimile). At the receiver, signals were passed through a moving band of paper impregnated with a solution of ammonium nitrate and potassium ferrocyanide. For text, Morse code signals were used, and because the system could respond to signals faster than those generated by hand, perforated paper tape was used to transmit the messages; in a trial between Paris and Lille, 282 words were transmitted in less than one minute. In 1865 the Abbé Caselli, a French engineer, introduced a commercial fax service between Paris and Lyons, based on Bain's device. Bain also used the idea of perforated tape to operate musical wind instruments automatically. Bain squandered a great deal of money on litigation, initially with Wheatstone and then with Morse in the USA. Although his inventions were acknowledged, Bain appears to have received no honours, but when towards the end of his life he fell upon hard times, influential persons in 1873 secured for him a Civil List Pension of £80 per annum and the Royal Society gave him £150.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1841, British patent no. 8,783; 1843, British patent no. 9,745; 1845, British patent no.
    10,838; 1847, British patent no. 11,584; 1852, British patent no. 14,146 (all for electric clocks).
    1852, A Short History of the Electric Clocks with Explanation of Their Principles and
    Mechanism and Instruction for Their Management and Regulation, London; reprinted 1973, introd. W.Hackmann, London: Turner \& Devereux (as the title implies, this pamphlet was probably intended for the purchasers of his clocks).
    Further Reading
    The best account of Bain's life and work is in papers by C.A.Aked in Antiquarian Horology: "Electricity, magnetism and clocks" (1971) 7: 398–415; "Alexander Bain, the father of electrical horology" (1974) 9:51–63; "An early electric turret clock" (1975) 7:428–42. These papers were reprinted together (1976) in A Conspectus of Electrical Timekeeping, Monograph No. 12, Antiquarian Horological Society: Tilehurst.
    J.Finlaison, 1834, An Account of Some Remarkable Applications of the Electric Fluid to the Useful Arts by Alexander Bain, London (a contemporary account between Wheatstone and Bain over the invention of the electric clock).
    J.Munro, 1891, Heroes of the Telegraph, Religious Tract Society.
    J.Malster \& M.J.Bowden, 1976, "Facsimile. A Review", Radio \&Electronic Engineer 46:55.
    D.J.Weaver, 1982, Electrical Clocks and Watches, Newnes.
    T.Hunkin, 1993, "Just give me the fax", New Scientist (13 February):33–7 (provides details of Bain's and later fax devices).
    DV / KF

    Biographical history of technology > Bain, Alexander

  • 124 Barnack, Oskar

    [br]
    b. 1879 Berlin, Germany
    d. January 1936 Wetzlar, Germany
    [br]
    German camera designer who conceived the first Leica camera and many subsequent models.
    [br]
    Oskar Barnack was an optical engineer, introspective and in poor health, when in 1910 he was invited through the good offices of his friend the mechanical engineer Emil Mechau, who worked for Ernst Leitz, to join the company at Wetzlar to work on research into microscope design. He was engaged after a week's trial, and on 2 January 1911 he was put in charge of microscope research. He was an enthusiastic photographer, but excursions with his large and heavy plate camera equipment taxed his strength. In 1912, Mechau was working on a revolutionary film projector design and needed film to test it. Barnack suggested that it was not necessary to buy an expensive commercial machine— why not make one? Leitz agreed, and Barnack constructed a 35 mm movie camera, which he used to cover events in and around Wetzlar.
    The exposure problems he encountered with the variable sensitivity of the cine film led him to consider the design of a still camera in which short lengths of film could be tested before shooting—a kind of exposure-meter camera. Dissatisfied with the poor picture quality of his first model, which took the standard cine frame of 18×24 mm, he built a new model in which the frame size was doubled to 36×24 mm. It used a simple focal-plane shutter adjustable to 1/500 of a second, and a Zeiss Milar lens of 42 mm focal length. This is what is now known as the UR-Leica. Using his new camera, 1/250 of the weight of his plate equipment, Barnack made many photographs around Wetzlar, giving postcard-sized prints of good quality.
    Ernst Leitz Junior was lent the camera for his trip in June 1914 to America, where he was urged to put it into production. Visiting George Eastman in Rochester, Leitz passed on Barnack's requests for film of finer grain and better quality. The First World War put an end to the chances of developing the design at that time. As Germany emerged from the postwar chaos, Leitz Junior, then in charge of the firm, took Barnack off microscope work to design prototypes for a commercial model. Leitz's Chief Optician, Max Berek, designed a new lens, the f3.5 Elmax, for the new camera. They settled on the name Leica, and the first production models went on show at the Leipzig Spring Fair in 1925. By the end of the year, 1,000 cameras had been shipped, despite costing about two months' good wages.
    The Leica camera established 35 mm still photography as a practical proposition, and film manufacturers began to create the special fine-grain films that Barnack had longed for. He continued to improve the design, and a succession of new Leica models appeared with new features, such as interchangeable lenses, coupled range-finders, 250 exposures. By the time of his sudden death in 1936, Barnack's life's work had forever transformed the nature of photography.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Borgé and G.Borgé, 1977, Prestige de la, photographie.
    BC

    Biographical history of technology > Barnack, Oskar

  • 125 Bessemer, Sir Henry

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 19 January 1813 Charlton (near Hitchin), Hertfordshire, England
    d. 15 January 1898 Denmark Hill, London, England
    [br]
    English inventor of the Bessemer steelmaking process.
    [br]
    The most valuable part of Bessemer's education took place in the workshop of his inventor father. At the age of only 17 he went to London to seek his fortune and set himself up in the trade of casting art works in white metal. He went on to the embossing of metals and other materials and this led to his first major invention, whereby a date was incorporated in the die for embossing seals, thus preventing the wholesale forgeries that had previously been committed. For this, a grateful Government promised Bessemer a paid position, a promise that was never kept; recognition came only in 1879 with a belated knighthood. Bessemer turned to other inventions, mainly in metalworking, including a process for making bronze powder and gold paint. After he had overcome technical problems, the process became highly profitable, earning him a considerable income during the forty years it was in use.
    The Crimean War presented inventors such as Bessemer with a challenge when weaknesses in the iron used to make the cannon became apparent. In 1856, at his Baxter House premises in St Paneras, London, he tried fusing cast iron with steel. Noticing the effect of an air current on the molten mixture, he constructed a reaction vessel or converter in which air was blown through molten cast iron. There was a vigorous reaction which nearly burned the house down, and Bessemer found the iron to be almost completely decarburized, without the slag threads always present in wrought iron. Bessemer had in fact invented not only a new process but a new material, mild steel. His paper "On the manufacture of malleable iron and steel without fuel" at the British Association meeting in Cheltenham later that year created a stir. Bessemer was courted by ironmasters to license the process. However, success was short-lived, for they found that phosphorus in the original iron ore passed into the metal and rendered it useless. By chance, Bessemer had used in his trials pig-iron, derived from haematite, a phosphorus-free ore. Bessemer tried hard to overcome the problem, but lacking chemical knowledge he resigned himself to limiting his process to this kind of pig-iron. This limitation was removed in 1879 by Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, who substituted a chemically basic lining in the converter in place of the acid lining used by Bessemer. This reacted with the phosphorus to form a substance that could be tapped off with the slag, leaving the steel free from this harmful element. Even so, the new material had begun to be applied in engineering, especially for railways. The open-hearth process developed by Siemens and the Martin brothers complemented rather than competed with Bessemer steel. The widespread use of the two processes had a revolutionary effect on mechanical and structural engineering and earned Bessemer around £1 million in royalties before the patents expired.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1879. FRS 1879. Royal Society of Arts Albert Gold Medal 1872.
    Bibliography
    1905, Sir Henry Bessemer FRS: An Autobiography, London.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Bessemer, Sir Henry

  • 126 Buddle, John

    [br]
    b. 15 November 1773 Kyloe, Northumberland, England
    d. 10 October 1843 Wallsend, Northumberland, England
    [br]
    English colliery inspector, manager and agent.
    [br]
    Buddle was educated by his father, a former schoolteacher who was from 1781 the first inspector and manager of the new Wallsend colliery. When his father died in 1806, John Buddle assumed full responsibility at the Wallsend colliery, and he remained as inspector and manager there until 1819, when he was appointed as colliery agent to the third Marquis of Londonderry. In this position, besides managing colliery business, he acted as an entrepreneur, gaining political influence and organizing colliery owners into fixing prices; Buddle and Londonderry were also responsible for the building of Seaham harbour. Buddle became known as the "King of the Coal Trade", gaining influence throughout the important Northumberland and Durham coalfield.
    Buddle's principal contribution to mining technology was with regard to the improvement of both safety standards and productivity. In 1807 he introduced a steam-driven air pump which extracted air from the top of the upcast shaft. Two years later, he drew up plans which divided the coalface into compartments; this enabled nearly the whole seam to be exploited. The system of compound ventilation greatly reduced the danger of explosions: the incoming air was divided into two currents, and since each current passed through only half the underground area, the air was less heavily contaminated with gas.
    In 1813 Buddle presented an important paper on his method for mine ventilation to the Sunderland Society for Preventing Accidents in Coal-mines, which had been established in that year following a major colliery explosion. He emphasized the need for satisfactory underground lighting, which influenced the development of safety-lamps, and assisted actively in the experiments with Humphrey Davy's lamp which he was one of the first mine managers to introduce. Another mine accident, a sudden flood, prompted him to maintain a systematic record of mine-workings which ultimately resulted in the establishment of the Mining Record Office.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1838, Transactions of the Natural History Society of Northumberland 11, pp. 309–36 (Buddle's paper on keeping records of underground workings).
    Further Reading
    R.L.Galloway, 1882, A History of Coalmining in Great Britain, London (deals extensively with Buddle's underground devices).
    R.W.Sturgess, 1975, Aristocrat in Business: The Third Marquis of Londonderry as
    Coalowner and Portbuilder, Durham: Durham County Local History Society (concentrates on Buddle's work after 1819).
    C.E.Hiskey, 1978, John Buddle 1773–1843, Agent and Entrepreneur in the Northeast
    Coal Trade, unpublished MLitt thesis, Durham University (a very detailed study).
    WK

    Biographical history of technology > Buddle, John

  • 127 Cai Lun (Tsai Lun)

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. c.57 AD China
    d. c.121 AD China
    [br]
    Chinese Director of Imperial Workshops who is usually credited with the invention of paper.
    [br]
    He was a confidential secretary to the Emperor. He became Director of the Imperial Workshops and he is said to have invented, or sponsored the invention of, paper around the year 105 AD. Recent studies, however, suggest that paper was already known in China two centuries earlier. The method of making it has hardly varied in principle since that time. The raw materials, then usually old fishing nets and clothing rags, were boiled with water, to which alkali in the form of wood ash was sometimes added. The resulting pulp was then beaten in a stone mortar with a stone or a wooden mallet. The pulp was then mixed and stirred with a large amount of water, and a sieve or mould (formed on a wooden frame carrying a mat of thin reeds sewn together) was dipped into it and was shaken to help the fibres in the layer of pulp to interlock and thus form a sheet of paper. The rest of the process consisted, then as now, of getting rid of the water: the sheets of paper were dried and bleached by leaving them to lie in the sun.
    Some of China's many inventions were achieved independently in Western Europe, but it seems that Europe's knowledge of papermaking stems from the Chinese. It was not until the eighth century that it passed into the Islamic world and so, first by contact with the Moors in Spain in the twelfth century, into Western Europe.
    Cai Lun was later made a marquis. Further promotion followed when he was regarded as the god of papermaking.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Needham, 1985, Science and Civilisation in China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Vol. V (1): Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West, 1970.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Cai Lun (Tsai Lun)

  • 128 Crampton, Thomas Russell

    [br]
    b. 6 August 1816 Broadstairs, Kent, England
    d. 19 April 1888 London, England
    [br]
    English engineer, pioneer of submarine electric telegraphy and inventor of the Crampton locomotive.
    [br]
    After private education and an engineering apprenticeship, Crampton worked under Marc Brunel, Daniel Gooch and the Rennie brothers before setting up as a civil engineer in 1848. His developing ideas on locomotive design were expressed through a series of five patents taken out between 1842 and 1849, each making a multiplicity of claims. The most typical feature of the Crampton locomotive, however, was a single pair of driving wheels set to the rear of the firebox. This meant they could be of large diameter, while the centre of gravity of the locomotive remained low, for the boiler barrel, though large, had only small carrying-wheels beneath it. The cylinders were approximately midway along the boiler and were outside the frames, as was the valve gear. The result was a steady-riding locomotive which neither pitched about a central driving axle nor hunted from side to side, as did other contemporary locomotives, and its working parts were unusually accessible for maintenance. However, adhesive weight was limited and the long wheelbase tended to damage track. Locomotives of this type were soon superseded on British railways, although they lasted much longer in Germany and France. Locomotives built to the later patents incorporated a long, coupled wheelbase with drive through an intermediate crankshaft, but they mostly had only short lives. In 1851 Crampton, with associates, laid the first successful submarine electric telegraph cable. The previous year the brothers Jacob and John Brett had laid a cable, comprising a copper wire insulated with gutta-percha, beneath the English Channel from Dover to Cap Gris Nez: signals were passed but within a few hours the cable failed. Crampton joined the Bretts' company, put up half the capital needed for another attempt, and designed a much stronger cable. Four gutta-percha-insulated copper wires were twisted together, surrounded by tarred hemp and armoured by galvanized iron wires; this cable was successful.
    Crampton was also active in railway civil engineering and in water and gas engineering, and c. 1882 he invented a hydraulic tunnel-boring machine intended for a Channel tunnel.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Vice-President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Officier de la Légion d'Honneur (France).
    Bibliography
    1842, British patent no. 9,261.
    1845. British patent no. 10,854.
    1846. British patent no. 11,349.
    1847. British patent no. 11,760.
    1849, British patent no. 12,627.
    1885, British patent no. 14,021.
    Further Reading
    M.Sharman, 1933, The Crampton Locomotive, Swindon: M.Sharman; P.C.Dewhurst, 1956–7, "The Crampton locomotive", Parts I and II, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 30:99 (the most important recent publications on Crampton's locomotives).
    C.Hamilton Ellis, 1958, Twenty Locomotive Men, Shepperton: Ian Allen. J.Kieve, 1973, The Electric Telegraph, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles, 102–4.
    R.B.Matkin, 1979, "Thomas Crampton: Man of Kent", Industrial Past 6 (2).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Crampton, Thomas Russell

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