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21 Szilard, Leo
SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour[br]b. 11 February 1898 Budapest, Hungaryd. 30 May 1964 La Jolla, California, USA[br]Hungarian (naturalized American in 1943) nuclear-and biophysicist.[br]The son of an engineer, Szilard, after service in the Austro-Hungarian army during the First World War, studied electrical engineering at the University of Berlin. Obtaining his doctorate there in 1922, he joined the faculty and concentrated his studies on thermodynamics. He later began to develop an interest in nuclear physics, and in 1933, shortly after Hitler came to power, Szilard emigrated to Britain because of his Jewish heritage.In 1934 he conceived the idea of a nuclear chain reaction through the breakdown of beryllium into helium and took out a British patent on it, but later realized that this process would not work. In 1937 he moved to the USA and continued his research at the University of Columbia, and the following year Hahn and Meitner discovered nuclear fission with uranium; this gave Szilard the breakthrough he needed. In 1939 he realized that a nuclear chain reaction could be produced through nuclear fission and that a weapon with many times the destructive power of the conventional high-explosive bomb could be produced. Only too aware of the progress being made by German nuclear scientists, he believed that it was essential that the USA should create an atomic bomb before Hitler. Consequently he drafted a letter to President Roosevelt that summer and, with two fellow Hungarian émigrés, persuaded Albert Einstein to sign it. The result was the setting up of the Uranium Committee.It was not, however, until December 1941 that active steps began to be taken to produce such a weapon and it was a further nine months before the project was properly co-ordinated under the umbrella of the Manhattan Project. In the meantime, Szilard moved to join Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago and it was here, at the end of 1942, in a squash court under the football stadium, that they successfully developed the world's first self-sustaining nuclear reactor. Szilard, who became an American citizen in 1943, continued to work on the Manhattan Project. In 1945, however, when the Western Allies began to believe that only the atomic bomb could bring the war against Japan to an end, Szilard and a number of other Manhattan Project scientists objected that it would be immoral to use it against populated targets.Although he would continue to campaign against nuclear warfare for the rest of his life, Szilard now abandoned nuclear research. In 1946 he became Professor of Biophysics at the University of Chicago and devoted himself to experimental work on bacterial mutations and biochemical mechanisms, as well as theoretical research on ageing and memory.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAtoms for Peace award 1959.Further ReadingKosta Tsipis, 1985, Understanding Nuclear Weapons, London: Wildwood House, pp. 16–19, 26, 28, 32 (a brief account of his work on the atomic bomb).A collection of his correspondence and memories was brought out by Spencer Weart and Gertrud W.Szilard in 1978.CM -
22 Taylor, Albert Hoyt
[br]b. 1 January 1874 Chicago, Illinois, USAd. 11 December 1961 Claremont, California, USA[br]American radio engineer whose work on radio-detection helped lay the foundations for radar.[br]Taylor gained his degree in engineering from Northwest University, Evanston, Illinois, then spent a time at the University of Gottingen. On his return to the USA he taught successively at Michigan State University, at Lansing, and at the universities of Wisconsin at Madison and North Dakota at Grand Forks. From 1923 until 1945 he supervised the Radio Division at the US Naval Research Laboratories. There he carried out studies of short-wave radio propagation and confirmed Heaviside's 1925 theory of the reflection characteristics of the ionosphere. In the 1920s and 1930s he investigated radio echoes, and in 1933, with L.C.Young and L.A.Hyland, he filed a patent for a system of radio-detection that contributed to the subsequent development of radar.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Morris N.Liebmann Memorial Award 1927. President, Institute of Radio Engineers 1929. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1942.Bibliography1926, with E.O.Hulbert, "The propagation of radio waves over the earth", Physical Review 27:189.1936, "The measurement of RF power", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 24: 1,342.Further ReadingS.S.Swords, 1986, Technical History of the Beginnings of Radar, London: Peter Peregrinus.See also: Watson-Watt, Sir Robert AlexanderKF -
23 Tupolev, Andrei Nikolayevich
[br]b. 10 November 1888 Pastomazovo, Russiad. 23 December 1972 Moscow, Russia[br]Russian aircraft designer.[br]In 1909 he entered the Moscow Higher Technical School and became a pupil of Nikolai Zhukovsky, who was known as "the father of Russian aviation". Graduating in 1918, he helped Zhukovsky to set up the Zhukovsky Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute and was made Assistant Director. He was appointed Head of the Institute's Design Department in 1922: his work was concentrated on wind tunnels and gliders, but later included aerodynamic calculations and the construction of all-metal aircraft. His first significant design project was the twin-engined Ant-29 fighter prototype, which appeared in the early 1930s and eventually entered service as the SB-2. However, Tupolev and his wife fell victim to Stalin's purges in 1937: she was sent to a labour camp and he was imprisoned, but in 1943 both were rehabilitated and Tupolev was able to resume his design work. He devoted his attention to long-range strategic bombers, the first of these being the Tu-4, a copy of the US B-29, followed by the Tu-70 bomber. He also designed the Tu-104 airliner, and in 1967 he produced the world's first supersonic airliner, the Tu-144. Tupolev also became interested in fast-attack naval craft and designed a number of torpedo launches, and he rose to the rank of Lieutenant-General in the Soviet air force's Engineering and Technical Service.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsHonoured Scientist and Technologist RSFSR 1933. Hero of Socialist Labour 1945. Member of the Supreme Soviet 1950–58. Member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences 1953. Lenin Prize 1957. Stalin Prize.CMBiographical history of technology > Tupolev, Andrei Nikolayevich
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24 Williams, Sir Frederic Calland
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 26 June 1911 Stockport, Cheshire, Englandd. 11 August 1977 Prestbury, Cheshire, England[br]English electrical engineer who invented the Williams storage cathode ray tube, which was extensively used worldwide as a data memory in the first digital computers.[br]Following education at Stockport Grammar School, Williams entered Manchester University in 1929, gaining his BSc in 1932 and MSc in 1933. After a short time as a college apprentice with Metropolitan Vickers, he went to Magdalen College, Oxford, to study for a DPhil, which he was awarded in 1936. He returned to Manchester University that year as an assistant lecturer, gaining his DSc in 1939. Following the outbreak of the Second World War he worked for the Scientific Civil Service, initially at the Bawdsey Research Station and then at the Telecommunications Research Establishment at Malvern, Worcestershire. There he was involved in research on non-incandescent amplifiers and diode rectifiers and the development of the first practical radar system capable of identifying friendly aircraft. Later in the war, he devised an automatic radar system suitable for use by fighter aircraft.After the war he resumed his academic career at Manchester, becoming Professor of Electrical Engineering and Director of the University Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1946. In the same year he succeeded in developing a data-memory device based on the cathode ray tube, in which the information was stored and read by electron-beam scanning of a charge-retaining target. The Williams storage tube, as it became known, not only found obvious later use as a means of storing single-frame, still television images but proved to be a vital component of the pioneering Manchester University MkI digital computer. Because it enabled both data and program instructions to be stored in the computer, it was soon used worldwide in the development of the early stored-program computers.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1976. OBE 1945. CBE 1961. FRS 1950. Hon. DSc Durham 1964, Sussex 1971, Wales 1971. First Royal Society of Arts Benjamin Franklin Medal 1957. City of Philadelphia John Scott Award 1960. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1963. Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1972. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Pioneer Award 1973.BibliographyWilliams contributed papers to many scientific journals, including Proceedings of the Royal Society, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Wireless Engineer, Post Office Electrical Engineers' Journal. Note especially: 1948, with J.Kilburn, "Electronic digital computers", Nature 162:487; 1949, with J.Kilburn, "A storage system for use with binary digital computing machines", Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 96:81; 1975, "Early computers at Manchester University", Radio \& Electronic Engineer 45:327. Williams also collaborated in the writing of vols 19 and 20 of the MIT RadiationLaboratory Series.Further ReadingB.Randell, 1973, The Origins of Digital Computers, Berlin: Springer-Verlag. M.R.Williams, 1985, A History of Computing Technology, London: Prentice-Hall. See also: Stibitz, George R.; Strachey, Christopher.KFBiographical history of technology > Williams, Sir Frederic Calland
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25 Нобелевские Премии
Нобелевские Премии
1933 - теория гена (Т. Морган);
1945 - открытие, очистка и химическая характеристика пенициллина (А. Флеминг, Э. Чейн, Х. Флори);
1946 - открытие мутагенного действия Ренгеновских лучей на дрозофилу (Г. Меллер); - очистка и химическая характеристика вирусов (У. Стэнли);
1952 - хроматографический метод разделения веществ (A. Мартин, Р. Синг);
1957 - расшифровка структуры нуклеотидов и нуклеозидов (A. Тодд);
1958 - достижения в общей генетике (Г. Бидл, Э. Татум, Дж. Ледерберг);
1959 - проведение синтеза нуклеиновых кислот in vitro (С. Очоа, А. Корнберг); 1962 - расшифровка структуры ДНК (Дж. Уотсон, Ф. Крик, М. Уилкинс);
- анализ структуры гемоглобина hemoglobin и миоглобина (М. Перуц, Дж. Кендрю);
1965 - достижения в генетике микроорганизмов (Ф. Жакоб, Ж. Моно, А. Львофф);
1966 - исследования онкогенных вирусов (П. Раус);
1968 - открытие и интерпретация генетического кода и его роли в синтезе белков (Р. Холли, Х. Корана, М. Ниренберг);
1969 - исследования по генетике вирусов (М. Дельбрюк, С. Луриа, А. Херши); 1974 - достижения в клеточной биологии (А. Клод, К. Де Дюв, Г. Палад);
1975 - исследования по онкогенным вирусам (Р. Дальбекко, Х. Темин, Д. Балтимор);
1978 - использование рестрикционных ферментов для картирования генов (В. Арбер, Х. Смит, О. Натанс);
1980 - достижения в области иммуногенетики (Г. Снелл, Ж. Доссе, Б. Бенасерра); - достижения в области искусственного манипулирования ДНК (П. Берг, У. Гилберт, Ф, Сэнджер);
1982 - анализ атомных структур («кристаллической решетки»); ряда соединений, включая вирусные частицы, тРНК и нуклеосомы (А. Клюг);
1983 - открытие подвижных генетических элементов (Б. Мак-Клинток);
1985 - установление механизмов рецепции низкомолекулярных липопротеинов и генетической природы семейной гиперхолестеринемии (М. Браун, Дж. Гольдштейн);
1986 - конструирование первого электронного микроскопа (Э. Рушка);
1987 - выяснение генетических механизмов многообразия антител (С. Тонегава);
1989 - исследования по онкогенам ретровирусов (Дж. Бишоп, Х. Вармус);
- анализ ферментной активности РНК (Т. Цех, С. Альтман).
[Арефьев В.А., Лисовенко Л.А. Англо-русский толковый словарь генетических терминов 1995 407с.]Тематики
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Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > Нобелевские Премии
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