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war+efforts

  • 21 военные усилия

    1) General subject: war effort
    2) Military: military value
    3) Diplomatic term: war efforts
    4) Politico-military term: military efforts (англ. термин взят из кн.: Military Balance 2009. - London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2009)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > военные усилия

  • 22 военный потенциал

    1) General subject: military potential, war capability

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > военный потенциал

  • 23 военная экономика

    1) General subject: war effort

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > военная экономика

  • 24 военные устремления

    military efforts, war efforts

    Русско-английский политический словарь > военные устремления

  • 25 военные действия

    2) Naval: operations
    5) leg.N.P. hostilities
    6) Makarov: military activity
    7) Security: action

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > военные действия

  • 26 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent

    SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology
    [br]
    b. 26 August 1743 Paris, France
    d. 8 May 1794 Paris, France
    [br]
    French founder of the modern science of chemistry.
    [br]
    As well as receiving a formal education in law and literature, Lavoisier studied science under some of the leading figures of the day. This proved to be an ideal formation of the man in whom "man of science" and "public servant" were so intimately combined. His early work towards the first geological map of France and on the water supply of Paris helped to win him election to the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1768 at the youthful age of 25. In the same year he used some of his private income to buy a part-share in the "tax farm", a private company which leased from the Government the right to collect certain indirect taxes.
    In 1772 Lavoisier began his researches into the related phenomena of combustion, respiration and the calcination or oxidation of metals. This culminated in the early 1780s in the overthrow of the prevailing theory, based on an imponderable combustion principle called "phlogiston", and the substitution of the modern explanation of these processes. At the same time, understanding of the nature of acids, bases and salts was placed on a sounder footing. More important, Lavoisier defined a chemical element in its modern sense and showed how it should be applied by drawing up the first modern list of the chemical elements. With the revolution in chemistry initiated by Lavoisier, chemists could begin to understand correctly the fundamental processes of their science. This understanding was the foundationo of the astonishing advance in scientific and industrial chemistry that has taken place since then. As an academician, Lavoisier was paid by the Government to carry out investigations into a wide variety of practical questions with a chemical bias, such as the manufacture of starch and the distillation of phosphorus. In 1775 Louis XVI ordered the setting up of the Gunpowder Commission to improve the supply and quality of gunpowder, deficiencies in which had hampered France's war efforts. Lavoisier was a member of the Commission and, as usual, took the leading part, drawing up its report and supervising its implementation. As a result, the industry became profitable, output increased so that France could even export powder, and the range of the powder increased by two-thirds. This was a material factor in France's war effort in the Revolution and the Napoleonic wars.
    As if his chemical researches and official duties were not enough, Lavoisier began to apply his scientific principles to agriculture when he purchased an estate at Frechines, near Blois. After ten years' work on his experimental farm there, Lavoisier was able to describe his results in the memoir "Results of some agricultural experiments and reflections on their relation to political economy" (Paris, 1788), which holds historic importance in agriculture and economics. In spite of his services to the nation and to humanity, his association with the tax farm was to have tragic consequences: during the reign of terror in 1794 the Revolutionaries consigned to the guillotine all the tax farmers, including Lavoisier.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1862–93, Oeuvres de Lavoisier, Vols I–IV, ed. J.B.A.Dumas; Vols V–VI, ed. E.Grimaux, Paris (Lavoisier's collected works).
    Further Reading
    D.I.Duveen and H.S.Klickstein, 1954, A Bibliography of the Works of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier 1743–1794, London: William Dawson (contains valuable biographical material).
    D.McKie, 1952, Antoine Lavoisier, Scientist, Economist, Social Reformer, London: Constable (the best modern, general biography).
    H.Guerlac, 1975, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, Chemist and Revolutionary, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (a more recent work).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent

  • 27 напряжённые военные действия

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > напряжённые военные действия

  • 28 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 29 effort

    effort [efɔʀ]
    masculine noun
    • encore un effort ! come on, you're nearly there!
    • bel effort ! well done!
    * * *
    efɔʀ
    nom masculin
    1) (physique, intellectuel) effort

    avec mon dos, je ne peux pas faire d'effort — with this back of mine, I can't do anything strenuous

    allons, encore un petit effort! — ( près du bout) come on, you're almost there!

    2) (subvention, aide) financial aid; ( mise de fonds) investment, (financial) outlay
    3) Physique ( force exercée) stress; ( force subie) strain
    * * *
    efɔʀ nm

    Fais un petit effort de mémoire. — Try hard to remember.

    sans effort [réussir, évoluer] — effortlessly, without even trying

    * * *
    effort nm
    1 (physique, intellectuel) effort; malgré les efforts des sauveteurs despite all the efforts of the rescue party; après bien des efforts after a great deal of effort; un bel effort a fine effort; un effort de mémoire an effort to remember; faire un effort d'adaptation to make an effort to adapt, to try to adapt; faire tous ses efforts pour faire to make every effort to do; fais un petit effort d'imagination! use a bit of imagination!; avec mon dos, je ne peux pas faire d'effort with this back of mine, I can't do anything strenuous; faire effort sur soi-même to force oneself to stay calm, to make an effort to stay calm; après deux heures d'efforts, le feu a été maîtrisé after a two-hour struggle, the fire was brought under control; allons, encore un petit effort! ( après échec) come on, one more try!, come on, have another go! GB; ( près du bout) come on, you're almost there!; il transpirait sous l'effort intellectuel he was sweating as he tried to think; triompher sans effort to succeed effortlessly; on n'a rien sans effort you never get anywhere unless you try;
    2 (subvention, aide) financial aid; ( mise de fonds) investment, (financial) outlay; faire un effort en faveur des déshérités to give financial aid to those in need; consentir un effort financier pour les écoles to agree to financial aid for schools; représenter un gros effort financier to represent a substantial outlay;
    3 Phys ( force exercée) stress; ( force subie) strain.
    effort de cisaillement Phys ( exercé) shear stress; ( subi) shear strain; effort de guerre Mil war effort; effort de torsion Phys torsional stress; effort de traction Phys tensile stress.
    [efɔr] nom masculin
    1. [dépense d'énergie] effort
    effort physique/intellectuel physical/intellectual effort
    tu aurais pu faire l'effort d'écrire/de comprendre you could (at least) have tried to write/to understand
    2. MÉCANIQUE & TECHNOLOGIE stress, strain
    effort de cisaillement/torsion shearing/torsional stress

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > effort

  • 30 effort

    noun
    1) (exertion) Anstrengung, die; Mühe, die

    make an/every effort — (physically) sich anstrengen; (mentally) sich bemühen

    without [any] effort — ohne Anstrengung; mühelos

    [a] waste of time and effort — vergebliche Liebesmüh

    make every possible effort to do something — jede nur mögliche Anstrengung machen, etwas zu tun

    he makes no effort at all — er gibt sich überhaupt keine Mühe

    2) (attempt) Versuch, der

    in an effort to do something — beim Versuch, etwas zu tun

    make no effort to be polite — sich (Dat.) nicht die Mühe machen, höflich zu sein

    3) (coll.): (result) Leistung, die

    that was a pretty poor effort — das war ein ziemlich schwaches Bild (ugs.)

    whose is this rather poor effort? — welcher Stümper hat das denn verbrochen? (ugs.)

    * * *
    ['efət]
    1) (hard work; energy: Learning a foreign language requires effort; The effort of climbing the hill made the old man very tired.) die Anstrengung
    2) (a trying hard; a struggle: The government's efforts to improve the economy were unsuccessful; Please make every effort to be punctual.) die Anstrengung
    3) (the result of an attempt: Your drawing was a good effort.) der Versuch
    •
    - academic.ru/23473/effortless">effortless
    - effortlessly
    * * *
    ef·fort
    [ˈefət, AM -ɚt]
    n
    1. (exertion) Mühe f, Anstrengung f
    despite all my \efforts, he is still smoking trotz all meiner Bemühungen raucht er immer noch
    to be worth the \effort die Mühe wert sein
    it is an \effort [for sb] to do sth es kostet [jdn] Mühe, etw zu tun
    to make an \effort [to do sth] sich akk anstrengen [o sich dat Mühe geben] [, etw zu tun]
    2. (trying) Bemühung f, Bemühen nt kein pl geh
    to make an \effort [to do sth] sich akk bemühen [o sich dat Mühe geben] [, etw zu tun]
    to not make any \effort to do sth sich dat nicht die geringste Mühe geben [o sich akk nicht bemühen], etw zu tun
    3. (outcome) Versuch m
    that's a fairly poor \effort das ist eine ziemlich schwache Leistung
    * * *
    ['efət]
    n
    1) (= attempt) Versuch m; (= strain, hard work) Anstrengung f, Mühe f; (MECH) Leistung f

    to make an effort to do sth — den Versuch unternehmen, etw zu tun, sich bemühen, etw zu tun

    to make the effort to do sth — sich (dat) die Mühe machen, etw zu tun

    to make every possible effort to do sth — jede nur mögliche Anstrengung or große Anstrengungen unternehmen or machen, etw zu tun

    to make little effort to do sth — sich (dat) wenig Mühe geben, etw zu tun

    he made no effort to be polite — er machte sich (dat) nicht die Mühe, höflich zu sein

    it's an effort (to get up in the morning) — es kostet einige Mühe or Anstrengung(, morgens aufzustehen)

    he had to double his efforts —

    if it's not too much of an effort for you (iro) — wenn es dir nicht zu viel Mühe macht

    with a great effort of will — mit einer gewaltigen Willensanstrengung

    come on, make an effort — komm, streng dich an

    2) (= campaign) Aktion f

    it's not bad for a first effort —

    his first effort at making a film —

    best film went to a strange Swedish effort — die Auszeichnung für den besten Film ging an ein merkwürdiges schwedisches Machwerk

    * * *
    effort [ˈefə(r)t] s
    1. Anstrengung f:
    a) Bemühung f, (angestrengter) Versuch
    b) Mühe f, harte Arbeit:
    make an effort sich bemühen, sich anstrengen ( beide:
    to do zu tun);
    make every effort sich alle Mühe geben, sich nach Kräften bemühen;
    make massive efforts gewaltige Anstrengungen unternehmen;
    put a lot of effort into sich gewaltige Mühe geben bei;
    spare no effort keine Mühe scheuen;
    with an effort mühsam;
    without effort mühelos, ohne Anstrengung;
    effort of will Willensanstrengung f;
    a good effort! immerhin!, nicht schlecht (für den Anfang)!
    2. SPORT etc Leistung f
    3. PHYS Sekundärkraft f, Potenzialabfall m
    * * *
    noun
    1) (exertion) Anstrengung, die; Mühe, die

    make an/every effort — (physically) sich anstrengen; (mentally) sich bemühen

    without [any] effort — ohne Anstrengung; mühelos

    [a] waste of time and effort — vergebliche Liebesmüh

    make every possible effort to do something — jede nur mögliche Anstrengung machen, etwas zu tun

    2) (attempt) Versuch, der

    in an effort to do something — beim Versuch, etwas zu tun

    make no effort to be polite — sich (Dat.) nicht die Mühe machen, höflich zu sein

    3) (coll.): (result) Leistung, die
    * * *
    n.
    Anstrengung f.
    Aufwand -¨e m.
    Bemühen -ungen n.
    Bemühung -en f.
    Bestreben n.
    Bestrebung f.
    Leistung -en f.
    Mühe -n f.
    Versuch -e m.

    English-german dictionary > effort

  • 31 bei

    Präp.
    1. räumlich, auch fig.:
    a) (in der Nähe von) near; bei Berlin near Berlin; die Schlacht bei Waterloo the Battle of Waterloo; beim Rathaus (just) near ( oder by) the town hall; (am Rathaus) at the town hall; dicht bei der Schule just next to the school; gleich beim Hotel liegt die Post the post office is just ( oder right) next to the hotel; etw. bei der Hand haben have s.th. to hand; sein Einkommen / der Wert liegt etwa bei 5000 Euro his salary / its value is around 5000 euros;
    b) an einem bestimmten Ort: at; beim Metzger / Bäcker etc. at the butcher’s / baker’s etc.; hast du das bei Woolworth gekauft? did you buy that at Woolworth’s; Herr Müller ist gerade bei Tisch Mr Müller is just at the table; wir waren alle bei mir / meinen Eltern we were all at my house ( oder place) / at my parents’ (place); bei ihr zu Hause in her house, at her place; bei uns in Hessen / auf dem Land where I come from in Hessen / in the country; wir sind morgen bei Kollegen eingeladen we have been invited to visit colleagues tomorrow; er wohnt bei mir nebenan / gegenüber / um die Ecke he lives next door / opposite / on the corner where I live ( oder of my place); sie wohnt bei einem alten Ehepaar she lives with an old couple; bei (per Adresse) Schmidt c / o (= care of) Schmidt; am Telefon: hier bei Müller this is the Müllers’, Müller speaking; bei den Schotten heißt das anders the Scots call it something else; Amerika wacht gerade erst auf, bei uns ist es aber schon 13 Uhr in America they’re just waking up, but here it’s already 1 o’clock
    2.
    a) bezeichnet Arbeitsverhältnis etc.: for; sie ist bei Langenscheidt she is with ( oder works for) Langenscheidt; er arbeitet oder ist bei der Post / Bahn he works for the post office / railway (Am. railroad); sie ist beim Fernsehen she works for (the) TV; beim Militär in the armed forces;
    b) bei jemandem Stunden nehmen have lessons with s.o.; bei welchem Arzt bist du? which doctor do you go to?; Brit. auch who’s your GP?
    3. an einer bestimmten Stelle: jemanden beim Kragen packen grab s.o. by the collar; jemanden bei der Hand etc. fassen take s.o. by the hand etc.; die Gelegenheit beim Schopf fassen seize ( oder grab umg.) the opportunity; bei Fuß! (to) heel
    4. dabei, mit: with; ich habe kein Geld bei mir I have no money on me; er hatte seinen Hund bei sich he had his dog with him; das ist oft so bei Kindern that’s fairly common with children; pej. children are like that; bei mir machst du das lieber nicht you’d be advised not to try that with me, you’d better not try that with me; die Entscheidung liegt bei dir it’s your decision
    6. von Werken, Künstlern etc.: in the work of; bei Schiller steht in one of Schiller’s works it says, Schiller says; bei Tizian / den Romantikern findet man dieses Motiv you find this motif in the works of Titian / the Romantics
    7. zeitlich, Umstände, Zustände:
    a) zu einem gewissen Zeitpunkt: on, at; bei meiner Ankunft when I arrived, on my arrival; bei Tagesanbruch at dawn; bei Sonnenaufgang / Sonnenuntergang at sunrise / sunset; bei schönem Wetter when the weather is fine; der Park schließt bei anbrechender Dunkelheit the park closes at dusk; bei dieser Gelegenheit möchte ich.... I should like to take this opportunity to...; bei einem Unfall in an accident; Vorsicht bei Abfahrt des Zuges! take care when the train leaves;
    b) (während) during, at, by; bei Nacht at night; bei Tag during the daytime, by day; beim Unterricht during a ( oder the) lesson; bei einem Glas Wein over a glass of wine; beim Lesen der Zeitung fiel mir auf... while ( oder when) I was reading the paper it struck me...; bei der Arbeit einschlafen fall asleep while working; beim Essen / Schlafen / Schreiben etc. while eating / sleeping / writing etc.;
    c) (dabei, mit) with; hilfst du mir beim Umzug / bei der Arbeit? will you help me with my move / work; jemanden beim Namen nennen call s.o. by (his oder her) name;
    d) (im Falle von) if there is, in case of; bei Gefahr Knopf drücken press the button in case of danger; bei Regen wird das Fest verschoben if it rains the party will be postponed; bei Nebel if it is foggy; bei Glatteis Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung auf 30 km speed limit 30 km if there is ice; Vorsicht bei Nässe! take care in wet conditions; beim nächsten Mal (the) next time; bei nächster Gelegenheit (the) next chance, at the first ( oder earliest) opportunity; bei Fieber Bettruhe halten stay in bed if you have a temperature; bei so etwas wird mir schlecht that sort of thing makes me feel ill; bei so etwas kann er nicht mitreden he has nothing to say about that sort of thing
    8. (unter) among; bei den alten Fotos among the old photos; heute war nichts für dich bei der Post there was nothing for you in the post (Am. mail) today; bei Strafe von under penalty of
    9. (betreffend): bei Alkohol muss ich aufpassen I have to be careful with alcohol; bei Geldfragen muss ich passen when it comes to (questions of) money, I have to pass; bei Männern hat sie Pech she’s unlucky with men
    10. (angesichts): bei deinem Gehalt! (you) with your salary!; bei meinem Gehalt kann ich mir das nicht leisten I can’t afford that on ( oder with) my salary; bei deiner Erkältung solltest du nicht rausgehen you should stay in with your cold ( oder with that cold of yours); bei 25 Euro pro Stunde at 25 euros an hour; bei so vielen Schwierigkeiten considering all the difficulties; bei so viel Hilfe sind wir schnell fertig with all this help we should be ready soon; bei der Lage der Dinge (with) matters ( oder things) the way they are; bei so vielen Teilnehmern können wir... with so many participants we can...; bei diesem Lärm / diesen Temperaturen kann man nicht schlafen with all this noise / with temperatures like this one can’t sleep
    11. (trotz): bei aller Liebe, das ist zu viel verlangt much as I sympathize - that’s asking too much; und das bei all seiner Mühe! and that in spite of all his efforts
    12. in bestimmtem Zustand: bei Kräften sein be in good health; bei guter Gesundheit sein be in good health; bei Besinnung sein be conscious; du bist wohl nicht ( recht) bei Trost! you’re not in your right mind; er ist heute nicht bei Laune he’s not in a very good mood today; gut bei Kasse sein have plenty of money
    13. bei bestimmten Bedingungen: beim besten Willen with the best will in the world; bei Wasser und Brot with just bread and water; bei offenem Fenster with the window open; bei Kerzenlicht / Mondschein by candlelight / moonlight; bei Licht besehen ist es nur halb so schlimm seen in the light of day it’s not so bad; bei Tageslicht by daylight
    14. Maß: bei weitem by far
    15. Anrufung: schwören bei swear by; bei Gott! by God!; bei meiner Ehre! altm. on my hono(u)r!; bei allem, was recht ist, das geht nun wirklich zu weit in all conscience, that’s going too far
    * * *
    on; at; about; next to; upon; beside; in the event of
    * * *
    1) at
    2) (next to; near; at the side of: by the door; He sat by his sister.) by
    3) on
    4) upon
    5) (in the care of: Leave your case with the porter.) with
    * * *
    [bai]
    1. (räumlich: in jds Wohn-/Lebensbereich) with
    \bei wem hast du die letzte Nacht verbracht? who did you spend last night with?
    sie wohnt \bei ihren Großeltern she lives with her grandparents
    ich war die ganze Zeit \bei meinen Eltern I was at my parents' [house] the whole time
    am Wochenende sind sie entweder \bei ihm oder \bei ihr at the weekend they're either at his place or at hers
    \bei jdm zu Besuch sein to be staying with [or visiting] sb
    \bei jdm zu Hause at sb's house
    bei uns zu Hause war das immer so üblich we always did it that way at home, that was the way we did things at home
    \bei Hofe at court
    \bei den Maori/Masai leben to live among the Maori/Masai
    \bei Familie Schmidt (Briefanschrift) c/o Schmidt
    2. (räumlich: im Tätigkeits-/Unternehmensbereich) for
    \bei jdm arbeiten [o sein] to work for sb
    er ist \bei Klett angestellt he works at Klett
    sie arbeitet \beim Fernsehen she works in television
    er arbeitet \bei der Bahn/beim Bund/einer Firma/ der Post he works for the railways/the government/a company/the post office
    er arbeitet \beim Supermarkt an der Ecke he works at the supermarket on the corner
    er ist neuerdings Redakteur \bei uns he joined us as an editor recently
    er ist ein hohes Tier \bei der Post he's a big shot [or fish] at the post office
    \bei wem lassen Sie Ihre Anzüge schneidern? who makes your suits?, who is your tailor?
    \bei wem haben Sie Deutsch gelernt? who taught you German?
    sie hat ihr Handwerk \bei einem sehr erfahrenen Meister gelernt she learnt her trade from a very experienced master craftsman
    beim Bäcker/Friseur at the baker's/hairdresser's
    \bei der Citybank sein (ein Konto haben) to bank [or have an account] with the Citybank
    \bei Klett erschienen published by Klett
    \bei der Marine/beim Militär in the navy/military
    \bei jdm Unterricht haben [o nehmen] to have lessons with [or take lessons from] sb
    3. (räumlich: in jds Werk)
    ▪ \bei jdm in
    das Zitat steht [irgendwo] \bei Goethe the quotation comes from [somewhere in] Goethe
    \bei wem hast du denn das gelesen? where did you read that?
    das kannst du alles \bei Schopenhauer nachlesen you can look it all up in Schopenhauer
    4. (räumlich: mit sich haben) with
    etw \bei sich dat haben [o tragen] to have sth with [or on] one
    ich habe die Unterlagen leider nicht \bei mir I'm afraid I haven't got the papers with me
    ich habe gerade kein Geld \bei mir I don't have [or I'm not carrying] any money on [or with] me at the moment
    jdn \bei sich dat haben to have sb with one
    zum Glück hatte ich meinen Bruder \bei mir fortunately, my brother was with me
    5. (räumlich: im eigenen Bereich) to
    ich dachte \bei mir... I thought [or was thinking] to myself...
    etw \bei sich behalten to keep sth to oneself
    behalte die Nachricht bitte noch \bei dir please don't tell anyone else the news for now, please keep the news to yourself for now
    6. (räumlich: in der Nähe) near
    Böblingen ist eine Stadt \bei Stuttgart Böblingen is a town near Stuttgart
    er wohnt \beim Bahnhof he lives near [to] [or close to] the station
    wir treffen uns \bei der Kirche/der Post we'll meet by the church/post office
    er saß \bei ihr (direkt neben) he sat beside [or next to] her; (in der näheren Umgebung) he sat close to [or near] her
    geh du, ich bleibe \bei den Kindern you go, I'll stay with the children
    \bei der ersten/zweiten Kreuzung at the first/second crossing
    \beim Fluss by the river
    die Schlacht \bei Hastings the battle of Hastings
    7. (räumlich: an) by
    jdn \bei der Hand nehmen to take sb by the hand; ÖSTERR (fig)
    etw \bei der Hand haben to have sth at hand
    8. (räumlich: zwischen, unter) among
    er war auch \bei den Demonstranten he was also among the demonstrators
    die Unterlagen sind \bei den Akten the papers are amongst the files
    9. (Angabe von Zeitspanne) during; (Angabe von Zeitpunkt) at
    unterbrechen Sie mich bitte nicht dauernd \bei meiner Rede! please stop interrupting my speech!
    \bei dem Zugunglück starben viele Menschen many people died in the train crash
    \bei der Aufführung darf nicht geraucht werden smoking is not permitted during the performance
    Vorsicht \bei der Abfahrt [des Zuges] please stand clear of the doors, the train is about to leave
    \bei jds Abreise/Ankunft on sb's departure/arrival
    ich hoffe, du bist \bei meiner Abreise auch da I hope you will be there when I leave [or on my departure]
    \bei Anbruch der Dunkelheit/des Tages at nightfall/daybreak
    \bei der Geburt/dem Tod at his/her etc. birth/death
    \bei Nacht/Tag by night/day
    \bei Tag und Nacht day and night
    \bei Tisch at table
    10. (gibt Teilnahme an)
    \bei einer Aufführung mitwirken to be involved in a performance/play
    \bei einem Gottesdienst/einer Hochzeit sein to be at a church service/wedding
    11. (während einer Tätigkeit) while
    das ist mir beim Bügeln eingefallen it occurred to me when [or as] [or while] I was ironing; NORDD
    \bei sein, etw zu tun to be on the verge of doing sth [or about to do sth
    wir können das ja \bei einer Flasche Wein besprechen let's talk about it over a bottle of wine
    \bei Schnee ist Weihnachten immer am schönsten Christmas is always nicest when it snows
    \bei diesem Wetter setze ich keinen Fuß vor die Tür! I'm not setting foot outside the door in this weather!
    \bei der Arbeit sein to be working [or at work]
    \bei/nicht \bei Bewusstsein sein to be conscious/unconscious
    \bei Kerzenlicht by candlelight
    \bei Kräften/guter Laune sein to be well [or fit]/in good spirits
    \bei dieser Hitze/Kälte in such heat/cold
    \bei Tageslicht arbeiten to work in daylight
    nicht mehr \bei Verstand sein to have taken leave of one's senses, to not be in one's right mind
    \bei Wind und Wetter come rain or shine
    13. (ungefähr) around
    der Preis liegt \bei etwa Euro 1.000 the price is around [or about] 1,000 euros
    14. (zur Angabe eines erreichten Wertes)
    der DAX lag \bei 3.554 the DAX closed at 3,554 points
    die Temperatur lag \bei 38,3° im Schatten the temperature was 38.3° in the shade
    15. (im Falle von etw) in case of
    „bei Feuer Scheibe einschlagen“ “in case of fire break glass”
    \bei Nebel/Regen werde ich nicht fahren I won't go if it's foggy/it rains
    16. (wegen, mit) with
    \bei seiner Sturheit könnte man manchmal wirklich verzweifeln one could sometimes really despair at his stubbornness
    \bei so viel Dummheit ist wirklich alle Liebesmüh vergebens all effort is futile in the face of such stupidity
    \bei diesem Sturm bleiben wir lieber zu Hause in view of [or due to] this storm we'd better stay at home
    \bei deinen Fähigkeiten with your talents [or skills
    17. (trotz) in spite of, despite
    \bei aller Freundschaft, das geht einfach zu weit we may be friends but that's just going too far
    es geht \beim besten Willen nicht even with the best will in the world it's just not possible
    ich schwöre es, \bei meiner toten Mutter! I swear on my mother's grave!
    \bei meiner Ehre [up]on my honour
    \bei Gott! (veraltend) by God!
    „ich schwöre \bei Gott, die Wahrheit zu sagen und nichts als die Wahrheit“ “I swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth, so help me God”
    19.
    ▶ nicht [ganz] \bei sich dat sein (fam) to be not [quite] oneself
    * * *
    1) (nahe) near; (dicht an, neben) by

    bei den Fahrrädern/Kindern bleiben — stay with the bicycles/children

    nicht [ganz] bei sich sein — (fig.) be not quite with it

    sich bei jemandem entschuldigen/erkundigen — apologize to somebody/ask somebody

    2) (unter) among
    3) (an) by
    4) (im Wohn-/Lebens-/Arbeitsbereich von)

    bei mir [zu Hause] — at my house

    bei uns um die Ecke/gegenüber — round the corner from us/opposite us

    wir treffen uns bei uns/Peter — we'll meet at our/Peter's place

    bei uns in Österreich — in Austria [where I/we come from/live]

    bei Schmidt — (auf Briefen) c/o Schmidt

    bei jemandem/einem Verlag arbeiten — work for somebody/a publishing house

    bei einer Hochzeit/einem Empfang — usw. at a wedding/reception etc.

    6) (im Werk von)

    bei Schiller heißt es... — Schiller says or writes that...

    7) (im Falle von) in the case of

    wie bei den Römern — as with the Romans

    hoffentlich geht es nicht wie bei mir — I hope the same thing doesn't happen as happened in my case

    bei Sonnenaufgang/-untergang — at sunrise/sunset

    9) (modal)

    bei Tag/Nacht — by day/night

    bei Tag und [bei] Nacht — day and night

    10) (im Falle des Auftretens von)

    ‘bei Feuer Scheibe einschlagen’ — ‘in case of fire, break glass’

    ‘bei Regen Schleudergefahr’ — ‘slippery when wet’

    11) (angesichts) with

    bei diesem Sturm/Lärm — with this storm blowing/noise going on

    12) (trotz)

    bei all seinem Engagement/seinen Bemühungen — in spite of or despite or for all his commitment/efforts

    bei allem Verständnis, aber ich kann das nicht — much as I sympathize, I cannot do that

    bei meiner Ehre! — (veralt.) upon my honour!

    * * *
    bei präp
    1. räumlich, auch fig: (in der Nähe von) near;
    bei Berlin near Berlin;
    die Schlacht bei Waterloo the Battle of Waterloo;
    beim Rathaus (just) near ( oder by) the town hall; (am Rathaus) at the town hall;
    dicht bei der Schule just next to the school;
    gleich beim Hotel liegt die Post the post office is just ( oder right) next to the hotel;
    etwas bei der Hand haben have sth to hand;
    sein Einkommen/der Wert liegt etwa bei 5000 Euro his salary/its value is around 5000 euros; an einem bestimmten Ort: at;
    beim Metzger/Bäcker etc at the butcher’s/baker’s etc;
    hast du das bei Woolworth gekauft? did you buy that at Woolworth’s;
    Herr Müller ist gerade bei Tisch Mr Müller is just at the table;
    wir waren alle bei mir/meinen Eltern we were all at my house ( oder place)/at my parents’ (place);
    bei ihr zu Hause in her house, at her place;
    bei uns in Hessen/auf dem Land where I come from in Hessen/in the country;
    wir sind morgen bei Kollegen eingeladen we have been invited to visit colleagues tomorrow;
    er wohnt bei mir nebenan/gegenüber/um die Ecke he lives next door/opposite/on the corner where I live ( oder of my place);
    sie wohnt bei einem alten Ehepaar she lives with an old couple;
    bei (per Adresse)
    Schmidt c/o (= care of) Schmidt; am Telefon:
    hier bei Müller this is the Müllers’, Müller speaking;
    bei den Schotten heißt das anders the Scots call it something else;
    Amerika wacht gerade erst auf, bei uns ist es aber schon 13 Uhr in America they’re just waking up, but here it’s already 1 o’clock
    2. bezeichnet Arbeitsverhältnis etc: for;
    sie ist bei Langenscheidt she is with ( oder works for) Langenscheidt;
    ist bei der Post/Bahn he works for the post office/railway (US railroad);
    sie ist beim Fernsehen she works for (the) TV;
    beim Militär in the armed forces;
    bei jemandem Stunden nehmen have lessons with sb;
    bei welchem Arzt bist du? which doctor do you go to?; Br auch who’s your GP?
    jemanden beim Kragen packen grab sb by the collar;
    fassen take sb by the hand etc;
    die Gelegenheit beim Schopf fassen seize ( oder grab umg) the opportunity;
    bei Fuß! (to) heel
    4. dabei, mit: with;
    ich habe kein Geld bei mir I have no money on me;
    er hatte seinen Hund bei sich he had his dog with him;
    das ist oft so bei Kindern that’s fairly common with children; pej children are like that;
    bei mir machst du das lieber nicht you’d be advised not to try that with me, you’d better not try that with me;
    die Entscheidung liegt bei dir it’s your decision
    bei einer Aufführung mitwirken take part in a performance; bei Spielen:
    bei dieser Runde setze ich aus I’ll sit this round out
    6. von Werken, Künstlern etc: in the work of;
    bei Schiller steht in one of Schiller’s works it says, Schiller says;
    bei Tizian/den Romantikern findet man dieses Motiv you find this motif in the works of Titian/the Romantics
    7. zeitlich, Umstände, Zustände: zu einem gewissen Zeitpunkt: on, at;
    bei meiner Ankunft when I arrived, on my arrival;
    bei Sonnenaufgang/Sonnenuntergang at sunrise/sunset;
    bei schönem Wetter when the weather is fine;
    bei dieser Gelegenheit möchte ich …. I should like to take this opportunity to …;
    bei einem Unfall in an accident;
    Vorsicht bei Abfahrt des Zuges! take care when the train leaves; (während) during, at, by;
    bei Nacht at night;
    bei Tag during the daytime, by day;
    beim Unterricht during a ( oder the) lesson;
    bei einem Glas Wein over a glass of wine;
    beim Lesen der Zeitung fiel mir auf … while ( oder when) I was reading the paper it struck me …;
    bei der Arbeit einschlafen fall asleep while working;
    beim Essen/Schlafen/Schreiben etc while eating/sleeping/writing etc; (dabei, mit) with;
    hilfst du mir beim Umzug/bei der Arbeit? will you help me with my move/work;
    jemanden beim Namen nennen call sb by (his oder her) name; (im Falle von) if there is, in case of;
    bei Gefahr Knopf drücken press the button in case of danger;
    bei Regen wird das Fest verschoben if it rains the party will be postponed;
    bei Nebel if it is foggy;
    bei Glatteis Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung auf 30 km speed limit 30 km if there is ice;
    Vorsicht bei Nässe! take care in wet conditions;
    beim nächsten Mal (the) next time;
    bei nächster Gelegenheit (the) next chance, at the first ( oder earliest) opportunity;
    bei Fieber Bettruhe halten stay in bed if you have a temperature;
    bei so etwas wird mir schlecht that sort of thing makes me feel ill;
    bei so etwas kann er nicht mitreden he has nothing to say about that sort of thing
    8. (unter) among;
    bei den alten Fotos among the old photos;
    heute war nichts für dich bei der Post there was nothing for you in the post (US mail) today;
    bei Strafe von under penalty of
    9. (betreffend):
    bei Alkohol muss ich aufpassen I have to be careful with alcohol;
    bei Geldfragen muss ich passen when it comes to (questions of) money, I have to pass;
    bei Männern hat sie Pech she’s unlucky with men
    bei deinem Gehalt! (you) with your salary!;
    bei meinem Gehalt kann ich mir das nicht leisten I can’t afford that on ( oder with) my salary;
    bei deiner Erkältung solltest du nicht rausgehen you should stay in with your cold ( oder with that cold of yours);
    bei 25 Euro pro Stunde at 25 euros an hour;
    bei so vielen Schwierigkeiten considering all the difficulties;
    bei so viel Hilfe sind wir schnell fertig with all this help we should be ready soon;
    bei der Lage der Dinge (with) matters ( oder things) the way they are;
    bei so vielen Teilnehmern können wir … with so many participants we can …;
    bei diesem Lärm/diesen Temperaturen kann man nicht schlafen with all this noise/with temperatures like this one can’t sleep
    11. (trotz):
    bei aller Liebe, das ist zu viel verlangt much as I sympathize - that’s asking too much;
    und das bei all seiner Mühe! and that in spite of all his efforts
    bei Kräften sein be in good health;
    bei guter Gesundheit sein be in good health;
    bei Besinnung sein be conscious;
    du bist wohl nicht (recht) bei Trost! you’re not in your right mind;
    er ist heute nicht bei Laune he’s not in a very good mood today;
    gut bei Kasse sein have plenty of money
    beim besten Willen with the best will in the world;
    bei Wasser und Brot with just bread and water;
    bei offenem Fenster with the window open;
    bei Kerzenlicht/Mondschein by candlelight/moonlight;
    bei Licht besehen ist es nur halb so schlimm seen in the light of day it’s not so bad;
    bei Tageslicht by daylight
    14. Maß:
    bei weitem by far
    15. Anrufung:
    schwören bei swear by;
    bei Gott! by God!;
    bei meiner Ehre! obs on my hono(u)r!;
    bei allem, was recht ist, das geht nun wirklich zu weit in all conscience, that’s going too far
    * * *
    1) (nahe) near; (dicht an, neben) by

    bei den Fahrrädern/Kindern bleiben — stay with the bicycles/children

    nicht [ganz] bei sich sein — (fig.) be not quite with it

    sich bei jemandem entschuldigen/erkundigen — apologize to somebody/ask somebody

    2) (unter) among
    3) (an) by
    4) (im Wohn-/Lebens-/Arbeitsbereich von)

    bei mir [zu Hause] — at my house

    bei uns um die Ecke/gegenüber — round the corner from us/opposite us

    wir treffen uns bei uns/Peter — we'll meet at our/Peter's place

    bei uns in Österreich — in Austria [where I/we come from/live]

    bei Schmidt — (auf Briefen) c/o Schmidt

    bei jemandem/einem Verlag arbeiten — work for somebody/a publishing house

    bei einer Hochzeit/einem Empfang — usw. at a wedding/reception etc.

    6) (im Werk von)

    bei Schiller heißt es... — Schiller says or writes that...

    7) (im Falle von) in the case of

    bei Sonnenaufgang/-untergang — at sunrise/sunset

    bei Tag/Nacht — by day/night

    bei Tag und [bei] Nacht — day and night

    ‘bei Feuer Scheibe einschlagen’ — ‘in case of fire, break glass’

    ‘bei Regen Schleudergefahr’ — ‘slippery when wet’

    11) (angesichts) with

    bei diesem Sturm/Lärm — with this storm blowing/noise going on

    bei all seinem Engagement/seinen Bemühungen — in spite of or despite or for all his commitment/efforts

    bei allem Verständnis, aber ich kann das nicht — much as I sympathize, I cannot do that

    bei meiner Ehre! — (veralt.) upon my honour!

    * * *
    (vollem) Verstand sein ausdr.
    to be in one's right mind expr.
    to be of sound mind expr. präp.
    at prep.
    by prep.
    next to prep.
    on prep.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > bei

  • 32 Foreign policy

       The guiding principle of Portuguese foreign policy since the founding of the monarchy in the 12th century has been the maintenance of Portugal's status first as an independent kingdom and, later, as a sovereign nation-state. For the first 800 years of its existence, Portuguese foreign policy and diplomacy sought to maintain the independence of the Portuguese monarchy, especially in relationship to the larger and more powerful Spanish monarchy. During this period, the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, which began with a treaty of commerce and friendship signed between the kings of Portugal and England in 1386 (the Treaty of Windsor) and continued with the Methuen Treaty in 1703, sought to use England ( Great Britain after 1707) as a counterweight to its landward neighbor, Spain.
       As three invasions of Portugal by Napoleon's armies during the first decade of the 19th century proved, however, Spain was not the only threat to Portugal's independence and security. Portugal's ally, Britain, provided a counterweight also to a threatening France on more than one occasion between 1790 and 1830. During the 19th century, Portugal's foreign policy became largely subordinate to that of her oldest ally, Britain, and standard Portuguese histories describe Portugal's situation as that of a "protectorate" of Britain. In two key aspects during this time of international weakness and internal turmoil, Portugal's foreign policy was under great pressure from her ally, world power Britain: responses to European conflicts and to the situation of Portugal's scattered, largely impoverished overseas empire. Portugal's efforts to retain massive, resource-rich Brazil in her empire failed by 1822, when Brazil declared its independence. Britain's policy of favoring greater trade and commerce opportunities in an autonomous Brazil was at odds with Portugal's desperate efforts to hold Brazil.
       Following the loss of Brazil and a renewed interest in empire in tropical Africa, Portugal sought to regain a more independent initiative in her foreign policy and, especially after 1875, overseas imperial questions dominated foreign policy concerns. From this juncture, through the first Republic (1910-26) and during the Estado Novo, a primary purpose of Portuguese foreign policy was to maintain Portuguese India, Macau, and its colonies in Africa: Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau. Under the direction of the dictator, Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, further efforts were made to reclaim a measure of independence of foreign policy, despite the tradition of British dominance. Salazar recognized the importance of an Atlantic orientation of the country's foreign policy. As Herbert Pell, U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1937-41), observed in a June 1939 report to the U.S. Department of State, Portugal's leaders understood that Portugal must side with "that nation which dominates the Atlantic."
       During the 1930s, greater efforts were made in Lisbon in economic, financial, and foreign policy initiatives to assert a greater measure of flexibility in her dependence on ally Britain. German economic interests made inroads in an economy whose infrastructure in transportation, communication, and commerce had long been dominated by British commerce and investors. Portugal's foreign policy during World War II was challenged as both Allied and Axis powers tested the viability of Portugal's official policy of neutrality, qualified by a customary bow to the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, who served as minister of foreign affairs, as well as prime minister, during 1936-45, sought to sell his version of neutrality to both sides in the war and to do so in a way that would benefit Portugal's still weak economy and finance. Portugal's status as a neutral was keenly tested in several cases, including Portugal's agreeing to lease military bases to Britain and the United States in the Azores Islands and in the wolfram (tungsten ore) question. Portugal's foreign policy experienced severe pressures from the Allies in both cases, and Salazar made it clear to his British and American counterparts that Portugal sought to claim the right to make independent choices in policy, despite Portugal's military and economic weakness. In tense diplomatic negotiations with the Allies over Portugal's wolfram exports to Germany as of 1944, Salazar grew disheartened and briefly considered resigning over the wolfram question. Foreign policy pressure on this question diminished quickly on 6 June 1944, as Salazar decreed that wolfram mining, sales, and exports to both sides would cease for the remainder of the war. After the United States joined the Allies in the war and pursued an Atlantic strategy, Portugal discovered that her relationship with the dominant ally in the emerging United Nations was changing and that the U.S. would replace Britain as the key Atlantic ally during succeeding decades. Beginning in 1943-44, and continuing to 1949, when Portugal became, with the United States, a founding member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Luso-American relations assumed center stage in her foreign policy.
       During the Cold War, Portuguese foreign policy was aligned with that of the United States and its allies in Western Europe. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the focus of Portuguese foreign policy shifted away from defending and maintaining the African colonies toward integration with Europe. Since Portugal became a member of the European Economic Community in 1986, and this evolved into the European Union (EU), all Portuguese governments have sought to align Portugal's foreign policy with that of the EU in general and to be more independent of the United States. Since 1986, Portugal's bilateral commercial and diplomatic relations with Britain, France, and Spain have strengthened, especially those with Spain, which are more open and mutually beneficial than at any other time in history.
       Within the EU, Portugal has sought to play a role in the promotion of democracy and human rights, while maintaining its security ties to NATO. Currently, a Portuguese politician, José Manuel Durão Barroso, is president of the Commission of the EU, and Portugal has held the six-month rotating presidency of the EU three times, in 1992, 2000, and 2007.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Foreign policy

  • 33 der

    I best. Art.
    1. m; (Nom. Sg.) the; der eine ist fleißig, der andere faul (the) one is hard-working, the other one is lazy; der Tod death; der Mensch (alle Menschen) man(kind), humankind; der große Goethe the famous Goethe; der arme Peter poor Peter; der Peter, den ich kenne the Peter (who oder that) I know; der Hyde Park Hyde Park
    2. (Gen Sg. von die) of the; die Mauern der Stadt auch the city walls
    3. (Dat Sg. von die) to the; den Schlüssel habe ich der Nachbarin gegeben I gave the key to the neighbo(u)r
    4. (Gen Pl. von der, die, das) of the; die Ankunft der Kinder auch the children’s arrival
    II Dem. Pron.
    1. m; (Nom. Sg.) that (one), this (one); (er) he, it; der Mann hier this man; der mit dem Bart the one with the beard; nur der kann das verstehen, der... only he ( oder that man) who... can understand it; der und baden gehen? you won’t catch him going swimming; der und ehrlich? Dass ich nicht lache! him? honest? Pull the other one! ( oder Give me a break!)
    2. (Dat Sg. von die) zu der und der Zeit umg. at such and such a time
    III Rel. Pron.
    1. m; (Nom. Sg.) bei Personen: who, that; bei Sachen: which, that; der Bezirk, der einen Teil von X bildet the district forming part of X; der erste Stein, der geworfen wurde the first stone that was thrown; er war der Erste, der es erfuhr he was the first to know; jeder, der... anyone who...; ich, der ich selbst dabei war I, who was there myself
    2. (Dat Sg. von die) bei Personen: who(m), who... to, to whom förm.; bei Sachen: that, which; die Freundin, der ich meine Sorgen erzählte the friend (whom) I told about my problems ( oder to whom I told my problems)
    * * *
    which one (Pron.); that (Pron.); which (Pron.); who (Pron.); the ( Artikel)
    * * *
    I [deːɐ]
    1. def art
    1) gen sing, pl von die of the

    das Miauen dér Katze — the miaowing of the cat, the cat's miaowing

    2) dat sing von die to the; (mit Präposition) the
    2. dem pron dat sing von die
    1) (adjektivisch) to that; (mit Präpositionen) that
    2) (substantivisch) to her; her
    3. rel pron dat sing
    to whom, that or who(m)... to; (mit Präposition) who(m); (von Sachen) to which, which... to; which II [deːɐ] pl die
    1. def art gen des, der, des, pl der dat dem, der, dem, pl den acc den, die, das, pl die
    the

    dér/die Arme! — the poor man/woman or girl

    dér Engländer (dated inf: = die Engländer) — the Englishman

    dér Faust — Faust

    dér Hans (inf) — Hans

    dér kleine Hans — little Hans

    dér Rhein — the Rhine

    dér Michigansee — Lake Michigan

    die "Bismarck" — the "Bismarck"

    dér Lehrer/die Frau (im Allgemeinen) — teachers pl/women pl

    dér Tod/die Liebe/das Leben — death/love/life

    dér Tod des Sokrates — the death of Socrates

    in dem England, das ich kannte — in the England (that or which) I knew

    er liebt den Jazz/die Oper/das Kino — he likes jazz/(the) opera/the cinema

    das Herstellen von Waffen ist... — manufacturing weapons is..., the manufacturing of weapons is...

    dér spätere Wittgenstein — the later Wittgenstein

    er war nicht mehr dér Hans, dér... — he was no longer the Hans who...

    ein Euro das Stück — one euro apiece or each

    20 Euro die Stunde — 20 euros an or per hour

    dér und dér Wissenschaftler — such and such a scientist

    2. dem pron gen dessen or (old) des, deren, dessen,
    pl deren dat dem, der, dem, pl denen acc den, die, das, pl die
    1) (attr) (= jener, dieser) that; (pl) those, them (inf)

    zu dér und dér Zeit — at such and such a time

    an dem und dem Ort — at such and such a place

    2) (substantivisch) he/she/it; (pl) those, them (inf)

    dér/die war es — it was him/her

    dér/die mit dér großen Nase — the one or him/her (inf) with the big nose

    mit den roten Haaren — those or them (inf) with red hair

    deine Schwester, die war nicht da (inf) — your sister, she wasn't there

    dér und schwimmen? — him, swimming?, swimming, (what) him?

    dér/die hier (von Menschen) — he/she, this man/woman etc; (von Gegenständen) this (one); (von mehreren) this one

    dér/die da (von Menschen) — he/she, that man/woman etc; (von Gegenständen) that (one); (von mehreren) that one

    die hier/da pl — they, these/those men/women etc, these/those, them (inf)

    dér, den ich meine — the one I mean

    dér und dér/die und die — so-and-so

    3. rel pron decl as dem pron
    (Mensch) who, that; (Gegenstand, Tier) which, that
    4. rel + dem pron decl as dem pron

    dér/die dafür verantwortlich war,... — the man/woman who was responsible for it

    die so etwas tun,... — those or people who do that sort of thing...

    * * *
    der1
    [de:ɐ̯]
    I. art def, nom sing m
    1. (allgemein) the
    \der Hund/Mann/Tisch the dog/man/table
    \der Mai [the month of] May
    \der Angeber! that show-off!
    2. (bei Körperteilen)
    mir tut \der Hals weh my throat hurts
    \der Hunger/Irrsinn/Tod hunger/madness/death
    \der Tod des Ikaros the death of Icarus
    \der Stahl wird auch mit anderen Elementen legiert steel is also alloyed with other elements; (bei spezifischen Stoffen) the
    \der Sauerstoff in der Luft the oxygen in the air
    \der Mann des Tages the man of the moment
    das ist \der Augenblick, auf den wir gewartet haben that's [just] the moment we've been waiting for
    \der Irak/Iran Iraq/Iran
    \der Sudan The Sudan
    \der Kongo vor der Kolonialzeit pre-colonial Congo
    \der kleine Peter little Peter
    \der spätere Dickens the later Dickens
    er war nicht mehr \der Uli, der... he was no longer the Uli who...
    das ist \der Klaus that's Klaus
    \der Papa sagt,... [my] dad says...
    \der Mensch heute man today
    \der Franzose isst gern gut the French like to eat well
    9. (nach Angaben)
    5 Euro \der Liter €5 a [or per] litre
    10. (vor Angaben)
    \der 14. August 2003 14[th] August 2003, August 14[th], 2003; (gesprochen) the fourteenth of August 2003
    Heinrich \der Achte Henry the Eighth
    \der Kleine the little boy/one
    \der Älteste the oldest [one]
    II. pron dem, nom sing m
    1. attr, betont
    \der Mann war es! it was that man!
    \der Hut gefällt mir am besten I like that/this hat [or that/this hat I like] the most
    \der Stift da that pen [there]
    \der Stift hier this pen [here]
    \der und \der Experte such and such an expert
    \der war es! it was him!
    \der hat es getan! it was him that [or who] did it!
    \der sagte mir,... he told me...
    welcher Stift? \der da? oder \der hier? which pen? that one [there]? or this one [here]?
    wer ist denn \der? (fam) who on earth is he [or that]?
    \der und joggen? him, jogging?
    \der und \der such and such
    \der mit der Brille the one [or fam him] with the glasses
    welcher Ball? — \der mit den Punkten which ball? — the/this/that one with the spots
    ach \der! (pej) oh him!
    der Chef? \der ist nicht da the boss? he's not there
    dein Vater, \der ist nicht gekommen your father, he didn't come
    mein Schuh! \der ist weg! my shoe! it's gone!
    der Scheißkerl, \der! the bastard!
    der Grund ist \der, dass... the reason is that [or because]...
    \der, den ich meinte the one I meant
    wo ist dein Bruder? — \der ist oben where's your brother? — he's upstairs
    das ist ein neuer Drucker! warum druckt \der nicht? that's a new printer! why isn't it working?
    beißt \der? does it/he/she bite?
    III. pron rel, nom sing m
    1. that; (Person a.) who/whom form; (Gegenstand, Tier a.) which
    ich hörte/sah einen Wagen, \der um die Ecke fuhr I heard/saw a car driving around the corner
    ein Film, \der gut ankommt a much-acclaimed film
    ein Roman, \der von Millionen gelesen wurde a novel [that has been] read by millions
    der König, \der vierzig Jahre herrschte,... (einschränkend) the king who [or that] reigned for forty years...; (nicht einschränkend) the king, who reigned for forty years,...
    der Mantel, \der zum Trocknen aufgehängt war,... (einschränkend) the coat that [or which] was hung up to dry...; (nicht einschränkend) the coat, which was hung up to dry,...
    der Mörder, \der von der Polizei gesucht wird,... (einschränkend) the murderer [who [or that]] the police are searching for..., the murderer for whom the police are searching... form; (nicht einschränkend) the murderer, who the police are searching for,..., the murderer, for whom the police are searching,... form
    der Fall, \der von den Ermittlern untersucht werden soll,... (einschränkend) the case [that [or which]] the investigators have to look into..., the case into which the investigators have to look... form; (nicht einschränkend) the case, which the investigators have to look into,..., the case, into which the investigators have to look,... form
    \der mir jetzt hilft, wird belohnt anyone helping [or form he who helps] me now will be rewarded
    \der diesen Brief geschrieben hat, kann gut Deutsch the person/man who wrote this letter knows good German
    \der zu so etwas fähig ist,... people who are capable of such things...; s.a. das, die
    der2
    [ˈde:ɐ̯]
    art def, gen sing f
    der Hund \der alten Frau the old woman's dog
    die Hitze \der Sonne the heat of the sun, the sun's heat
    das Schnurren \der fetten Katze the fat cat's purring, the purring of the fat cat
    die Lösung \der Formel hier the solution to this formula, this formula's solution
    der Einspruch \der Frau da that woman's objection, the objection from that woman
    die Farbe \der Zunge deutete auf seine Krankheit the colour of his tongue indicated his illness
    ein Opfer \der Liebe a victim of love
    ein Zeichen \der Hoffnung a sign of hope
    das Kämmen \der Wolle the combing of wool
    die Berge \der Schweiz the mountains of Switzerland
    die Puppe \der kleinen Sabine little Sabine's doll
    ich ruf an wegen \der Anna I'm calling to talk to you about Anna
    die Arien \der Callas Callas' arias
    8. (form: vor Namen)
    ein Antrag \der Ute Kley a petition from Ute Kley
    die Rolle \der Frau in Management women's role [or the role of women] in management
    die Trinkfestigkeit \der Engländerin the ability of the Englishwoman to hold her drink
    10. (geh: nach Angaben)
    10 Meter \der kostbarsten Seide 10 metres of the most precious silk
    das Spielzeug \der Kleinen the little one's [or girl's] toys
    die Weisheit \der Ältesten the wisdom of the eldest [woman]; s.a. das, die
    der3
    I. art def, dat sing f
    1. siehe auch vb (allgemein)
    sie redeten mit/von \der Nachbarin they were talking with/about the neighbour
    ich klopfte an \der Tür I knocked at the door
    das Bild hängt an \der Wand the picture is hanging on the wall
    sie folgte \der Frau/Menge she followed the woman/crowd
    er gab \der Großmutter den Brief he gave his grandmother the letter, he gave the letter to his grandmother
    es gehört \der Frau da it belongs to that woman
    es entspricht \der Textstelle hier it corresponds to this passage in the text
    er schlug den Tisch mit \der Faust he thumped the table with his fist
    er widmete \der Liebe ein Gedicht he dedicated a poem to love
    mit \der Hoffnung eines Verzweifelten with the hope of a desperate man
    \der Bronze wird auch Phosphor beigemischt phosphorus is also added to bronze; (bei spezifischen Stoffen)
    mit \der Wolle dieses Schafs with the wool from this sheep, with this sheep's wool
    wir segelten mit \der ‚Nordwind‘ we sailed on the [yacht] ‘Nordwind’
    in \der Schweiz [der Zwischenkriegsjahre] in [interwar] Switzerland
    \der kleinen Jenny geht's nicht gut little Jenny isn't feeling well
    sie ist bei \der Kati she's at Kati's place
    er hat \der Callas mal die Hand geküsst he once kissed Callas' hand
    von \der Frau in der Industrie of women in industry
    als das Pferd \der Maschine wich when the horse gave way to the engine
    mit 20 Flaschen \der Kiste with 20 bottles a [or per] crate
    gib \der Kleinen einen Kuss give the little one a kiss
    wir gingen zu \der Ältesten we went to the elder
    II. pron dem, dat sing f
    1. attr, betont
    \der Pflanze muss man Dünger geben that plant must be given fertilizer
    \der Frau hast du es erzählt? you told it to that woman?
    zu \der und \der Zeit at such and such a time
    glaub \der bloß nicht! don't believe her [of all people]!
    III. pron rel, dat sing f, siehe auch vb
    meine Kollegin, \der die Aufgabe zugeteilt wurde,... (einschränkend) my colleague who [or that] was assigned the task...; (nicht einschränkend) my colleague, who was assigned the task,...
    die Lösung, \der der Alkohol entzogen war,... (einschränkend) the solution that [or which] had its alcohol extracted...; (nicht einschränkend) the solution, which had its alcohol extracted,...
    die Abgeordnete, \der ich oft schrieb,... (einschränkend) the MP [who [or that]] I often wrote to..., the MP to whom I often wrote... form; (nicht einschränkend) the MP, who I often wrote to,..., the MP, to whom I often wrote,... form
    die Grippe, unter \der sie leiden,... (einschränkend) the flu [that [or which]] they're suffering from..., the flu from which they're suffering... form; (nicht einschränkend) the flu, which they're suffering from,..., the flu, from which they're suffering,... form; s.a. das, die
    der4
    art def, gen pl
    1. siehe auch n (allgemein)
    die Anstrengungen \der Schüler the pupils' efforts, the efforts of the pupils
    die Zeichnungen \der beiden Schwestern the two sisters' drawings, the drawings by the two sisters
    das Gezwitscher \der Vögel the twittering of the birds
    das Gewicht \der Platten the weight of the slabs
    die Wohnung \der Eltern my/his/her etc. parents' flat
    die Lösungen \der Formeln hier the solutions to these formulae
    der Einspruch \der Frauen da those women's objection, the objection from those women
    die Farbe \der Haare gefiel ihr nicht she didn't like the colour of her hair
    die Sprachen \der Niederlande the languages of [or spoken in] the Netherlands
    das Haus \der Müllers the Millers' house
    4. (form: vor Namen)
    ein Antrag \der Heinz und Ute Kley a petition from Heinz and Ute Kley
    die Rolle \der Pflanzen in der Medizin the role of plants in medicine
    6. (geh: nach Angaben)
    10 Kisten \der feinsten Äpfel 10 crates of the finest apples
    das Spielzeug \der Kleinen the little ones' toys
    die Weisheit \der Ältesten the wisdom of the elders; s.a. das, die
    * * *
    I 1.
    bestimmter Artikel Nom. the

    der April/Winter — April/winter

    der ‘Faust’ — ‘Faust’

    der Dieter — (ugs.) Dieter

    der Kapitalismus/Islam — capitalism/Islam

    der Bodensee/Mount Everest — Lake Constance/Mount Everest

    2.
    1) attr. that

    der und arbeiten! — (ugs.) [what,] him work! (coll.)

    der [da] — (Mann) that man; (Gegenstand, Tier) that one

    der [hier] — (Mann) this man; (Gegenstand, Tier) this one

    3.
    Relativpronomen (Mensch) who/that; (Sache) which/that

    der Mann, der da drüben entlanggeht — the man walking along over there

    4.
    Relativ- und Demonstrativpronomen the one who
    II 1.
    bestimmter Artikel
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 1.
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 1.: to the; (nach Präp.) the
    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 1., die I 1., das 1.

    das Haus der Freunde — our/their etc. friends' house

    2.
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 2. 1): of the; of that
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 2. attr

    der Frau [da/hier] gehört es — it belongs to that woman there/this woman here; allein stehend

    gib es der da! — (ugs.) give it to 'her

    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 2. 1), die I 2. 1), das 2. 1): of those
    3.
    Relativpronomen; Dat. Sg. v. die I 3. (Person) whom

    die Frau, der ich es gegeben habe — the woman to whom 1 gave it; the woman 1 gave it to; (Sache) that/which

    die Katze, der er einen Tritt gab — the cat [that] he kicked

    * * *
    A. best art
    1. m; (nom sg) the;
    der eine ist fleißig, der andere faul (the) one is hard-working, the other one is lazy;
    der Tod death;
    der Mensch (alle Menschen) man(kind), humankind;
    der große Goethe the famous Goethe;
    der arme Peter poor Peter;
    der Peter, den ich kenne the Peter (who oder that) I know;
    der Hyde Park Hyde Park
    2. (gen sg von die) of the;
    die Mauern der Stadt auch the city walls
    3. (dat sg von die) to the;
    den Schlüssel habe ich der Nachbarin gegeben I gave the key to the neighbo(u)r
    4. (gen pl von der, die, das) of the;
    die Ankunft der Kinder auch the children’s arrival
    B. dem pr
    1. m; (nom sg) that (one), this (one); (er) he, it;
    der Mann hier this man;
    der mit dem Bart the one with the beard;
    nur der kann das verstehen, der … only he ( oder that man) who … can understand it;
    der und baden gehen? you won’t catch him going swimming;
    der und ehrlich? Dass ich nicht lache! him? honest? Pull the other one! ( oder Give me a break!)
    2. (dat sg von die)
    zu der und der Zeit umg at such and such a time
    C. rel pr
    1. m; (nom sg) bei Personen: who, that; bei Sachen: which, that;
    der Bezirk, der einen Teil von X bildet the district forming part of X;
    der erste Stein, der geworfen wurde the first stone that was thrown;
    er war der Erste, der es erfuhr he was the first to know;
    jeder, der … anyone who …;
    ich, der ich selbst dabei war I, who was there myself
    2. (dat sg von die) bei Personen: who(m), who … to, to whom form; bei Sachen: that, which;
    die Freundin, der ich meine Sorgen erzählte the friend (whom) I told about my problems ( oder to whom I told my problems)
    * * *
    I 1.
    bestimmter Artikel Nom. the

    der April/Winter — April/winter

    der ‘Faust’ — ‘Faust’

    der Dieter — (ugs.) Dieter

    der Kapitalismus/Islam — capitalism/Islam

    der Bodensee/Mount Everest — Lake Constance/Mount Everest

    2.
    1) attr. that

    der und arbeiten! — (ugs.) [what,] him work! (coll.)

    der [da] — (Mann) that man; (Gegenstand, Tier) that one

    der [hier] — (Mann) this man; (Gegenstand, Tier) this one

    3.
    Relativpronomen (Mensch) who/that; (Sache) which/that

    der Mann, der da drüben entlanggeht — the man walking along over there

    4.
    Relativ- und Demonstrativpronomen the one who
    II 1.
    bestimmter Artikel
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 1.
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 1.: to the; (nach Präp.) the
    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 1., die I 1., das 1.

    das Haus der Freunde — our/their etc. friends' house

    2.
    1) Gen. Sg. v. die I 2. 1): of the; of that
    2) Dat. Sg. v. die I 2. attr

    der Frau [da/hier] gehört es — it belongs to that woman there/this woman here; allein stehend

    gib es der da! — (ugs.) give it to 'her

    3) Gen. Pl. v. der I 2. 1), die I 2. 1), das 2. 1): of those
    3.
    Relativpronomen; Dat. Sg. v. die I 3. (Person) whom

    die Frau, der ich es gegeben habe — the woman to whom 1 gave it; the woman 1 gave it to; (Sache) that/which

    die Katze, der er einen Tritt gab — the cat [that] he kicked

    * * *
    (neueste) Stand der Technik m.
    the state of the art n. art.m.
    the art. pron.
    which pron.
    who pron.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > der

  • 34 effort

    effort [ˈefət]
    • what do you think of his latest effort? (inf) qu'est-ce que tu penses de ce qu'il vient de faire ?
    • the government's effort to avoid... les efforts mpl du gouvernement pour éviter...
    ► make + effort
    * * *
    ['efət]
    1) ( energy) efforts mpl

    to put a lot of effort into something/into doing — se donner beaucoup de peine pour quelque chose/pour faire

    2) ( difficulty) effort m
    3) ( attempt)

    joint effort — initiative f commune

    4) ( initiative) initiative f

    war effort — effort m de guerre

    5) fig ( exercise) effort m

    English-French dictionary > effort

  • 35 Kraft

    Präp. (+ Gen) by virtue of; on the strength of; kraft Gesetzes by law
    * * *
    die Kraft
    fortitude; verdure; power; vigour; vigor; vigorousness; puissance; strength; force; vis; might
    * * *
    Krạft [kraft]
    f -, -e
    ['krɛftə]
    1) (körperlich, sittlich) strength no pl; (geistig, schöpferisch) powers pl; (militärisch, wirtschaftlich) strength, power; (von Prosa, Stimme) strength, power, force; (= Energie) energy, energies pl

    er weiß nicht wohin mit seiner Kraft (inf) — he's just bubbling over with energy

    er kann vor Kraft nicht mehr laufen (hum) — he's so muscle-bound he can hardly move

    die Kräfte ( mit jdm) messen — to try or pit one's strength (against sb); (fig) to pit oneself against sb

    mit letzter Kraft — with one's last ounce of strength

    die Kraft aufbringen, etw zu tun — to find the strength to do sth

    mit vereinten Kräften werden wir... — if we combine our efforts or if we join forces we will...

    das geht über meine Kräfte, das übersteigt meine Kräfte — it's more than I can take, it's too much for me

    mit aller or voller Kraft — with all one's might or strength

    er will mit aller Kraft durchsetzen, dass... — he will do his utmost to ensure that...

    aus eigener Kraft — by oneself; (fig auch) by one's own efforts, single-handedly

    nach ( besten) Kräften — to the best of one's ability

    er tat, was in seinen Kräften stand — he did everything (with)in his power

    nicht bei Kräften sein — not to be in very good shape

    See:
    → messen
    2) (PHYS einer Reaktion etc) force; (der Sonne etc) strength, power (no pl = Wirksamkeit, liter, BIBL = Macht) power
    3) (usu pl: in Wirtschaft, Politik etc) force
    4) no pl (JUR = Geltung) force

    in Kraft sein/treten/setzen — to be in/come into/bring into force

    außer Kraft sein — to have ceased to be in force, to be no longer in force

    außer Kraft setzen — to cancel, to annul

    5) no pl

    (NAUT: = Geschwindigkeit) halbe/volle Kraft voraus! — half/full speed ahead

    6) (= Arbeitskraft) employee, worker; (= Haushaltskraft) domestic help; (= Lehrkraft) teacher
    * * *
    die
    1) (strength or power that can be felt: the force of the wind.) force
    2) (a person or thing that has great power: the forces of Nature.) force
    3) ((an) ability: A witch has magic power; A cat has the power of seeing in the dark; He no longer has the power to walk.) power
    4) (strength, force or energy: muscle power; water-power; ( also adjective) a power tool (=a tool operated by electricity etc. not by hand).) power
    5) (the quality of being strong: He got his strength back slowly after his illness; I hadn't the strength to resist him.) strength
    * * *
    <-, Kräfte>
    [kraft, pl ˈkrɛftə]
    f
    1. (Stärke) strength, power; (Energie) energy
    ich hatte nicht die \Kraft, weiterzugehen I didn't have the strength to walk any further
    wenn man alle Kräfte zusammennimmt if you summon up all your strength
    er ist am Ende seiner Kräfte he can't take any more
    er kann vor \Kraft nicht mehr laufen (hum fam) he's so muscle-bound he can hardly move
    mit aller \Kraft with all one's strength
    sie wollen mit aller \Kraft durchsetzen, dass... they will do their utmost to ensure that...
    die \Kraft aufbringen, etw zu tun to find the strength to do sth
    nach besten Kräften to the best of one's ability
    bei Kräften bleiben to keep one's strength up
    aus eigener \Kraft by oneself [or one's own efforts]
    mit frischer \Kraft with renewed energy
    über jds Kräfte gehen to be more than sb can cope with
    das geht über meine Kräfte it's more than I can take
    geistige/schöpferische Kräfte mental/creative powers
    mit seinen Kräften Haus halten müssen to have to conserve one's strength
    wieder zu Kräften kommen to regain one's strength
    mit letzter \Kraft with one's last ounce of strength
    seine Kräfte [mit jdm] messen to try [or pit] one's strength [against sb]
    die militärische/wirtschaftliche \Kraft eines Landes the military/economic strength of a country
    seine Kräfte sammeln to gather one's strength
    nicht bei Kräften sein to not be in very good shape
    wieder bei Kräften sein to have [got] one's strength back
    in jds Kräften stehen to be within sb's powers
    sie tat, was in ihren Kräften stand she did everything [with]in her power
    ich will Ihnen gern[e] behilflich sein, soweit es in meinen Kräften steht I will do everything within my power to help you
    jds Kräfte übersteigen to be too much for sb
    mit vereinten Kräften with combined efforts, in a combined effort
    mit vereinten Kräften müssten wir es schaffen if we combine our efforts [or join forces] we should succeed
    die \Kraft der Verzweiflung the strength born of desperation
    nicht wissen, wohin mit seiner \Kraft (fam) to be brimming with energy
    ich weiß nicht, wohin mit meiner \Kraft I'm just bubbling over with energy
    2. kein pl JUR (Geltung) power, force
    außer \Kraft sein to be no longer [or have ceased to be] in force
    ein Gesetz außer \Kraft setzen to repeal a law
    außer \Kraft treten to cease to be in force
    in \Kraft bleiben/sein to remain/be in force
    in \Kraft seit... effective as from...; Gesetz operative from...
    in \Kraft treten to come [or enter] into force
    3. (Energie) power, force
    die heilende \Kraft der Sonne the healing power of the sun
    magnetische Kräfte magnetic attraction sing
    die treibende \Kraft the driving force
    halbe/volle \Kraft voraus! half/full speed ahead!
    5. meist pl ÖKON, POL (Einfluss nehmende Gruppe) force
    das Gleichgewicht der Kräfte the balance of power
    reaktionäre Kräfte rebel forces
    6. (Arbeitskraft) employee, worker
    ▪ Kräfte pl employees pl, workers pl, personnel + sing/pl vb, staff sing
    * * *
    die; Kraft, Kräfte

    geistige/schöpferische Kräfte — mental/creative powers

    wieder bei Kräften sein — have [got] one's strength back

    aus eigener Kraft — by oneself or one's own efforts

    ich werde tun, was in meinen Kräften steht — I shall do everything [with]in my power

    mit vereinten Kräften sollte es gelingen — if we join forces or combine our efforts we should succeed

    nach [besten] Kräften — to the best of one's ability

    2) (Wirksamkeit) power
    3) (ArbeitsKraft) employee; (in einer Fabrik) employee; worker

    Kräfte — employees/workers; personnel pl.; (Angestellte auch) staff pl.

    4) Plural (Gruppe) forces
    5) (Physik) force

    die treibende Kraft — (fig.) the driving force

    6) (Seemannsspr.)

    volle/halbe Kraft voraus! — full/half speed ahead!

    7) in

    außer Kraft setzen — repeal < law>; countermand < order>

    außer Kraft sein/treten — no longer be/cease to be in force

    in Kraft treten/sein/bleiben — come into/be in/remain in force

    * * *
    Kraft f; -, Kräfte
    1. körperlich: strength; (Tatkraft) energy; fig auch power;
    rohe Kraft brute force;
    am Ende seiner Kräfte at the end of one’s strength, at one’s last gasp;
    aus eigener Kraft by one’s own efforts, under one’s own steam;
    mit aller Kraft with all one’s might;
    mit frischen Kräften with renewed strength ( oder vigo[u]r);
    mit letzter Kraft with one’s last ounce of strength;
    nach besten Kräften to the best of one’s ability;
    übersteigt meine Kräfte that’s more than I can handle;
    Kräfte sammeln gather strength;
    an den Kräften zehren sap one’s strength ( oder energy);
    wieder bei Kräften sein have regained one’s strength ( oder energy); (gesund sein) be back on one’s feet;
    wieder zu Kräften kommen regain one’s strength ( oder energy); (gesund werden) get back on one’s feet;
    Kraft verleihen give strength (+dat to), fig einer Argumentation etc: lend force (to); → Spiel 1, vereint etc
    2. (Naturkraft, auch PHYS) force; (Energie) energy;
    überirdische Kräfte supernatural forces;
    heilende Kraft healing power;
    treibende Kraft driving force; fig auch powerhouse;
    Kraft und Masse force and mass;
    Arbeit ist Kraft mal Weg work is force times distance
    3. (Macht, auch TECH, ELEK) power;
    volle Kraft voraus SCHIFF full speed ahead;
    mit voller/halber Kraft at full/half speed
    4. (Arbeitskraft) employee, pl auch staff, personnel pl;
    wir müssen noch eine Kraft fürs Lager einstellen we need to take on another member of staff (US to hire somebody) for the warehouse
    5. (politische Kraft, Machtgruppe) force, power;
    dritte Kraft third force;
    reaktionäre/revolutionäre Kräfte reactionary/revolutionary forces;
    die Regierung hat allen verfassungsfeindlichen Kräften den Kampf angesagt the government has declared war on all anti-constitutional forces
    6. (Geltung, Rechtsgültigkeit):
    in Kraft sein be in force, be effective;
    in Kraft setzen put into force, enforce;
    in Kraft treten come into effect ( oder force), become effective;
    außer Kraft setzen annul; (Gesetz) repeal; (Vertrag etc) cancel; (Regel) auch overrule; zeitweilig: suspend;
    außer Kraft sein/treten no longer be in force/cease to be in force, expire
    * * *
    die; Kraft, Kräfte

    geistige/schöpferische Kräfte — mental/creative powers

    wieder bei Kräften sein — have [got] one's strength back

    aus eigener Kraft — by oneself or one's own efforts

    ich werde tun, was in meinen Kräften steht — I shall do everything [with]in my power

    mit vereinten Kräften sollte es gelingen — if we join forces or combine our efforts we should succeed

    nach [besten] Kräften — to the best of one's ability

    2) (Wirksamkeit) power
    3) (ArbeitsKraft) employee; (in einer Fabrik) employee; worker

    Kräfte — employees/workers; personnel pl.; (Angestellte auch) staff pl.

    4) Plural (Gruppe) forces
    5) (Physik) force

    die treibende Kraft — (fig.) the driving force

    6) (Seemannsspr.)

    volle/halbe Kraft voraus! — full/half speed ahead!

    7) in

    außer Kraft setzen — repeal < law>; countermand < order>

    außer Kraft sein/treten — no longer be/cease to be in force

    in Kraft treten/sein/bleiben — come into/be in/remain in force

    * * *
    ¨-e f.
    force n.
    power n.
    puissance n.
    strength n.
    verdure n.
    vigor n.
    vis (mechanics) n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Kraft

  • 36 Anstrengung

    f
    1. (Strapaze) strain, stress; die Reise war mit großen körperlichen Anstrengungen verbunden the journey ( oder trip) involved severe physical exertion ( oder hardship)
    2. (Bemühung) effort; weitS. auch endeavo(u)r; mit äußerster Anstrengung by a supreme effort; ohne Anstrengung effortlessly; Anstrengungen machen make efforts; die Regierung macht Anstrengungen, die Arbeitslosenzahlen zu senken the government is doing it’s best to lower the unemployment figures
    * * *
    die Anstrengung
    labour; labor; strenuousness; endeavour; tension; effort; strain; endeavor; struggle
    * * *
    Ạn|stren|gung
    f -, -en
    effort; (= Strapaze) strain

    große Anstrengungen machen — to make every effort

    Anstrengungen machen, etw zu tun — to make an effort to do sth

    mit äußerster/letzter Anstrengung — with very great/one last effort

    * * *
    die
    1) (hard work; energy: Learning a foreign language requires effort; The effort of climbing the hill made the old man very tired.) effort
    2) (a trying hard; a struggle: The government's efforts to improve the economy were unsuccessful; Please make every effort to be punctual.) effort
    3) ((an) effort: They failed in spite of their exertions.) exertion
    4) ((something, eg too much work etc, that causes) a state of anxiety and fatigue: The strain of nursing her dying husband was too much for her; to suffer from strain.) strain
    * * *
    An·stren·gung
    <-, -en>
    f
    1. (Kraftaufwand) exertion no pl
    2. (Bemühung) effort
    mit äußerster [o letzter] \Anstrengung with one last effort
    \Anstrengungen/einige \Anstrengungen machen, etw zu tun to make an effort/several efforts to do sth, to try [several times] to do sth
    * * *
    die; Anstrengung, Anstrengungen
    1) (Einsatz) effort

    große Anstrengungen machen, etwas zu tun — make every effort to do something

    2) (Strapaze) strain
    * * *
    1. (Strapaze) strain, stress;
    die Reise war mit großen körperlichen Anstrengungen verbunden the journey ( oder trip) involved severe physical exertion ( oder hardship)
    2. (Bemühung) effort; weitS. auch endeavo(u)r;
    mit äußerster Anstrengung by a supreme effort;
    ohne Anstrengung effortlessly;
    Anstrengungen machen make efforts;
    die Regierung macht Anstrengungen, die Arbeitslosenzahlen zu senken the government is doing it’s best to lower the unemployment figures
    * * *
    die; Anstrengung, Anstrengungen
    1) (Einsatz) effort

    große Anstrengungen machen, etwas zu tun — make every effort to do something

    2) (Strapaze) strain
    * * *
    f.
    effort n.
    endeavour n.
    strain n.
    strenuousness n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Anstrengung

  • 37 win

    [win] 1. present participle - winning; verb
    1) (to obtain (a victory) in a contest; to succeed in coming first in (a contest), usually by one's own efforts: He won a fine victory in the election; Who won the war/match?; He won the bet; He won (the race) in a fast time / by a clear five metres.) vinde
    2) (to obtain (a prize) in a competition etc, usually by luck: to win first prize; I won $5 in the crossword competition.) vinde
    3) (to obtain by one's own efforts: He won her respect over a number of years.) vinde
    2. noun
    (a victory or success: She's had two wins in four races.) sejr
    - winning
    - winning-post
    - win over
    - win the day
    - win through
    * * *
    [win] 1. present participle - winning; verb
    1) (to obtain (a victory) in a contest; to succeed in coming first in (a contest), usually by one's own efforts: He won a fine victory in the election; Who won the war/match?; He won the bet; He won (the race) in a fast time / by a clear five metres.) vinde
    2) (to obtain (a prize) in a competition etc, usually by luck: to win first prize; I won $5 in the crossword competition.) vinde
    3) (to obtain by one's own efforts: He won her respect over a number of years.) vinde
    2. noun
    (a victory or success: She's had two wins in four races.) sejr
    - winning
    - winning-post
    - win over
    - win the day
    - win through

    English-Danish dictionary > win

  • 38 waste

    1. noun
    1) (useless remains) Abfall, der
    2) (extravagant use) Verschwendung, die; Vergeudung, die

    it's a waste of time/money/energy — das ist Zeit-/Geld-/Energieverschwendung

    go or run to waste — vergeudet werden

    2. transitive verb
    1) (squander) verschwenden; vergeuden (on auf + Akk., an + Akk.)

    all his efforts were wasted — all seine Mühe war umsonst

    waste not, want not — (prov.) spare in der Zeit, so hast du in der Not (Spr.)

    2)

    be wasted — (reduced) [Vorräte, Bevölkerung:] abnehmen, schrumpfen

    3) (cause to shrink) aufzehren [Kräfte]; auszehren [Körper]
    3. intransitive verb
    dahinschwinden; (gradually) im Schwinden begriffen sein
    4. adjective

    waste material — Abfall, der

    waste water — Abwasser, das

    2)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/93642/waste_away">waste away
    * * *
    [weist] 1. verb
    (to fail to use (something) fully or in the correct or most useful way: You're wasting my time with all these stupid questions.) verschwenden
    2. noun
    1) (material which is or has been made useless: industrial waste from the factories; ( also adjective) waste material.) der Abfall, Abfall-...
    2) ((the) act of wasting: That was a waste of an opportunity.) die Verschwendung
    3) (a huge stretch of unused or infertile land, or of water, desert, ice etc: the Arctic wastes.) die Einöde
    •
    - wastage
    - wasteful
    - wastefully
    - wastefulness
    - waste paper
    - wastepaper basket
    - waste pipe
    - waste away
    * * *
    [weɪst]
    I. n
    1. no pl (misuse) Verschwendung f, Vergeudung f
    he's a total \waste of space, that man ( fam) der Mann ist zu nichts zu gebrauchen
    what a \waste! was für eine Verschwendung!
    to be a \waste of effort vergeudete Mühe sein
    it's a \waste of energy/money es ist Energie-/Geldverschwendung
    to lay \waste to the land das Land verwüsten
    \waste of resources Verschwendung [o Vergeudung] von Ressourcen
    \waste of time Zeitverschwendung f, Zeitvergeudung f
    2. no pl (unwanted matter) Abfall m
    household/industrial \waste Haushalts-/Industriemüll m
    nuclear [or radioactive] \waste Atommüll m
    toxic \waste Giftmüll m
    to go to \waste verkommen, verderben
    to let sth go to \waste etw verderben lassen
    to recycle \waste Müll recyceln
    3. (excrement) Exkremente pl
    4. LAW (damage done to land) Einöde f
    II. vt
    ▪ to \waste sth etw verschwenden [o vergeuden]
    don't \waste your money on me, love verschwende dein Geld nicht an mich, Liebling
    don't \waste my time! stiehl mir nicht meine wertvolle Zeit!
    you are wasting your time here! das ist reine Zeitverschwendung!
    to \waste one's breath sich dat seine Worte sparen können
    to \waste no time keine Zeit verlieren
    to not \waste words nicht viele Worte machen [o verlieren
    2. AM (sl: kill)
    ▪ to \waste sb jdn umlegen fam
    III. vi
    ▶ \waste not, want not ( prov) spare in der Zeit, dann hast du in der Not prov
    * * *
    [weɪst]
    1. adj
    (= superfluous) überschüssig, überflüssig; (= left over) ungenutzt; land brachliegend, ungenutzt

    waste material/matter — Abfallstoffe pl

    2. n
    1) Verschwendung f; (= unusable materials) Abfall m

    it's a waste of time/money — es ist Zeit-/Geldverschwendung

    it's a waste of your time and mine — das ist nur( eine) Zeitverschwendung für uns beide

    he's/it's a waste of space (inf) — er/das taugt nichts

    to go to waste (food) — umkommen; (training, money, land) ungenutzt sein/bleiben, brachliegen; (talent etc) verkümmern

    2) (= waste material) Abfallstoffe pl; (in factory) Schwund m; (= rubbish) Abfall m
    3) (= land, expanse) Wildnis f no pl, Einöde f
    3. vt
    1) (= use badly or wrongly) verschwenden, vergeuden (on an +acc, für); food verschwenden; life, time vergeuden, vertun; opportunity vertun

    you're wasting your time — das ist reine Zeitverschwendung, damit vertust du nur deine Zeit

    you didn't waste much time getting here! (inf) — da bist du ja schon, du hast ja nicht gerade getrödelt! (inf)

    all our efforts were wasted — all unsere Bemühungen waren umsonst or vergeblich

    he didn't waste any words in telling me... — ohne viel(e) Worte zu machen or zu verlieren, sagte er mir...

    Beethoven/your joke is wasted on him — Beethoven/dein Witz ist an den verschwendet or vergeudet

    2) (= weaken) auszehren; strength aufzehren
    3) (= lay waste) verwüsten
    4) (inf: kill) kaltmachen (inf)
    4. vi
    (food) umkommen; (skills) verkümmern; (body) verfallen; (strength, assets) schwinden

    waste not, want not (Prov) — spare in der Zeit, so hast du in der Not (Prov)

    * * *
    waste [weıst]
    A adj
    1. brach(liegend):
    lay waste verwüsten;
    lie waste brachliegen
    2. a) nutzlos, überflüssig
    b) ungenutzt, überschüssig (Energie etc)
    3. unbrauchbar, Abfall…
    4. TECH
    a) abgängig, verloren, Abgangs…
    b) Abfluss…, Ablauf…, Abzugs….:
    waste drain Abzugskanal m;
    waste materials Abgänge pl, Abfall(material) m(n)
    5. BIOL Ausscheidungs…
    B s
    1. Verschwendung f, -geudung f:
    waste of energy (money, space, time) Energie-(Geld-, Platz-, Zeit)verschwendung;
    a) verwildern,
    b) vergeudet werden,
    c) verlottern, -fallen
    2. Verfall m, Verschleiß m, Abgang m, Verlust m
    3. Wüste f, (Ein)Öde f:
    waste of water Wasserwüste
    4. Abfall m, Müll m
    5. TECH Abfall m, Abgänge pl, besonders
    a) Ausschuss m
    b) Abfall-, Putzbaumwolle f
    c) Ausschusswolle f, Wollabfälle pl
    d) Werg n
    e) METALL Gekrätz n
    f) TYPO Makulatur f
    6. Bergbau: Abraum m
    7. GEOL Geröll n, Schutt m
    8. JUR
    a) Vernachlässigung f
    b) Wert(ver)minderung f (eines Grundstücks)
    C v/t
    1. a) Geld, Zeit etc verschwenden, -geuden (on an dat, für):
    waste one’s time doing sth seine Zeit damit verschwenden, etwas zu tun;
    waste no time in doing sth sich beeilen, etwas zu tun; etwas sofort tun;
    it is wasteed on him es ist zu schade für ihn; → breath 1
    b) einen Sportler etc verheizen umg
    2. Zeit, eine Gelegenheit etc ungenutzt verstreichen lassen
    3. fig brachliegen oder ungenutzt lassen:
    a wasted talent ein ungenutztes Talent
    4. be wasted nutzlos sein, ohne Wirkung bleiben (on auf akk):
    this is wasted on him das lässt ihn völlig kalt
    5. zehren an (dat), aufzehren, schwächen:
    be wasted with grief von Kummer verzehrt werden
    6. verwüsten, -heeren, zerstören
    7. JUR Vermögensschaden oder Minderung verursachen bei, ein Besitztum verkommen lassen
    8. besonders MIL US sl umlegen
    D v/i
    1. fig vergeudet oder verschwendet werden:
    he wastes in routine work er verzettelt sich mit Routinearbeit
    2. vergehen, (ungenutzt) verstreichen (Zeit, Gelegenheit etc)
    3. auch waste away schwächer werden, dahinsiechen, verfallen
    4. fig abnehmen, (dahin)schwinden
    5. verschwenderisch sein:
    waste not, want not (Sprichwort) spare in der Zeit, so hast du in der Not
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (useless remains) Abfall, der
    2) (extravagant use) Verschwendung, die; Vergeudung, die

    it's a waste of time/money/energy — das ist Zeit-/Geld-/Energieverschwendung

    go or run to waste — vergeudet werden

    2. transitive verb
    1) (squander) verschwenden; vergeuden (on auf + Akk., an + Akk.)

    waste not, want not — (prov.) spare in der Zeit, so hast du in der Not (Spr.)

    2)

    be wasted — (reduced) [Vorräte, Bevölkerung:] abnehmen, schrumpfen

    3) (cause to shrink) aufzehren [Kräfte]; auszehren [Körper]
    3. intransitive verb
    dahinschwinden; (gradually) im Schwinden begriffen sein
    4. adjective

    waste material — Abfall, der

    waste water — Abwasser, das

    2)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    v.
    verbrauchen v.
    vergeuden v.
    verschwenden v. adj.
    unbrauchbar adj.
    wüst adj.
    öd adj.
    überflüssig adj. n.
    Abfall -¨e m.
    Einöde -n f.
    Verschwendung f.

    English-german dictionary > waste

  • 39 effort

    effort n
    1 ( energy) efforts mpl ; all our effort ou efforts tous nos efforts ; to put a lot of effort into sth/into doing se donner beaucoup de peine or de mal pour qch/pour faire ; to put all one's effort(s) into doing consacrer tous ses efforts pour faire ; to redouble one's effort redoubler d'efforts ; to spare no effort ne ménager aucun effort ; it's a waste of effort c'est du travail pour rien ; to be worth the effort en valoir la peine ;
    2 ( difficulty) effort m ; with effort avec difficulté ; without effort sans effort ; it is/was an effort to do il est/était pénible de faire ;
    3 ( attempt) to make the effort faire l'effort ; he made no effort to apologize il n'a fait aucun effort pour s'excuser ; his efforts at doing ses tentatives pour faire ; her efforts on my behalf ses efforts pour m'aider ; to make every effort faire tout son possible ; in an effort to do pour essayer de faire ; joint effort initiative f commune ; this painting is my latest/first effort cette peinture est ma toute dernière/première œuvre ; not a bad effort for a first try pas mal pour un début ;
    4 ( initiative) initiative f ; peace effort initiative de paix ; war effort effort de guerre ;
    5 fig ( exercise) effort m ; an effort of will/imagination un effort de volonté/d'imagination.

    Big English-French dictionary > effort

  • 40 win

    win
    1. present participle - winning; verb
    1) (to obtain (a victory) in a contest; to succeed in coming first in (a contest), usually by one's own efforts: He won a fine victory in the election; Who won the war/match?; He won the bet; He won (the race) in a fast time / by a clear five metres.) ganar
    2) (to obtain (a prize) in a competition etc, usually by luck: to win first prize; I won $5 in the crossword competition.) ganar
    3) (to obtain by one's own efforts: He won her respect over a number of years.) ganar(se)

    2. noun
    (a victory or success: She's had two wins in four races.) victoria
    - winning
    - winning-post
    - win over
    - win the day
    - win through
    win1 n victoria
    win2 vb
    1. ganar
    2. ganar / llevarse / conseguir
    tr[wɪn]
    1 victoria
    transitive verb (pt & pp won, ger winning)
    1 (gen) ganar; (victory) conseguir, ganar
    ■ who do you think will win the election? ¿quién crees que ganará las elecciones?
    2 (prize, cup, etc) ganar, llevarse
    ■ we've won the pools! ¡hemos sacado una quiniela!
    3 (gain, obtain, achieve - gen) conseguir, obtener, ganar; (- friendship, respect) granjearse; (- sympathy, affection) ganarse, granjearse; (- support) atraer, captar; (- heart, love) conquistar
    1 ganar
    ■ who's winning? ¿quién va ganando?
    ■ OK! you win! ¡vale! ¡tú ganas!
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to win hands down ganar fácilmente
    to win the day llevarse la palma
    to win the toss ganar el sorteo
    win or lose tanto si ganamos como si perdemos
    win ['wɪn] v, won ['wʌn] ; winning vi
    : ganar
    win vt
    1) : ganar, conseguir
    2)
    to win over : ganarse a
    3)
    to win someone's heart : conquistar a alguien
    win n
    : triunfo m, victoria f
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: won) = congraciar v.
    • ganar v.
    • lograr v.
    • triunfar v.
    n.
    • victoria s.f.

    I
    1. wɪn
    (pres p winning; past & past p won) transitive verb
    1) ( gain) \<\<prize/title\>\> ganar; \<\<support\>\> conseguir*, ganarse; \<\<fame/recognition\>\> ganarse; \<\<affection\>\> ganarse, granjearse; \<\<scholarship/promotion\>\> conseguir*, obtener* (frml); \<\<contract\>\> conseguir*
    2) ( be victorious in) \<\<war/race/bet/election\>\> ganar

    you can't win them all — (colloq) no se puede pretender ganarlas todas


    2.
    vi ganar

    to win AT something — \<\<at cards/billiards/golf\>\> ganar a algo

    OK, you win! — (colloq) está bien, como tú digas

    you can't win! — (colloq) no hay caso!

    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    noun victoria f, triunfo m
    [wɪn] (vb: pt, pp won)
    1.
    N victoria f, triunfo m

    another win for Castroforte — otra victoria or otro triunfo para el Castroforte

    their fifth win in a row — su quinta victoria consecutiva, su quinto triunfo consecutivo

    last Sunday's win against or over Pakistan — la victoria del domingo frente a or sobre Pakistán

    to back a horse for a win — apostar dinero por un caballo para que gane la/una carrera

    no-win
    2. VT
    1) (=be victorious in) [+ competition, bet, war, election] ganar
    - win the day

    pragmatism will probably win the day — al final triunfará or se impondrá el pragmatismo

    spur 1., 1)
    2) (=be awarded) [+ cup, award, prize, title] ganar; [+ contract, order] obtener, conseguir

    the party won a convincing victory at the polls — el partido consiguió or obtuvo una victoria convincente en las elecciones

    3) (=obtain) [+ pay rise, promotion] conseguir, ganarse; [+ support, friendship, recognition] ganarse; [+ metal, ore] extraer ( from de)

    to win a reputation for honesty — granjearse or ganarse una reputación de persona honrada

    to win sb sth: it won him first prize — le valió or le ganó el primer premio

    to win sb to one's cause — ganar a algn para la causa de uno, atraer a algn a la causa de uno

    4) (=reach) [+ shore] llegar a, alcanzar; [+ goal] conseguir
    5) (Mil) (=capture) tomar
    3.
    VI (in war, sport, competition) ganar

    who's winning? — ¿quién va ganando?

    go in and win! — ¡a ganar!

    OK, you win * — vale, ganas tú

    Evans won 2-6, 6-4, 6-3 — Evans ganó 2-6, 6-4, 6-3

    to win by a head/a length — ganar por una cabeza/un largo

    you can't win —

    whatever you say, you're always wrong, you can't win — digas lo que digas, ellos siempre tienen razón, ¡no hay manera!

    - win hands down
    * * *

    I
    1. [wɪn]
    (pres p winning; past & past p won) transitive verb
    1) ( gain) \<\<prize/title\>\> ganar; \<\<support\>\> conseguir*, ganarse; \<\<fame/recognition\>\> ganarse; \<\<affection\>\> ganarse, granjearse; \<\<scholarship/promotion\>\> conseguir*, obtener* (frml); \<\<contract\>\> conseguir*
    2) ( be victorious in) \<\<war/race/bet/election\>\> ganar

    you can't win them all — (colloq) no se puede pretender ganarlas todas


    2.
    vi ganar

    to win AT something — \<\<at cards/billiards/golf\>\> ganar a algo

    OK, you win! — (colloq) está bien, como tú digas

    you can't win! — (colloq) no hay caso!

    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    noun victoria f, triunfo m

    English-spanish dictionary > win

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