necessitated

несов. - вызыва́ть, сов. - вы́звать

1) (вн.; попросить явиться куда-л) call (d), send (for)

2) (вн. на вн., вн. + инф.; на бой, состязание) challenge (d to, d + to inf)

3) (вн.; приказывать явиться) summon (d)

4) (вн.; возбуждать, быть причиной) provoke (d), call forth (d), give rise (to); ( сильные чувства) stir up (d), excite (d), rouse (d), arouse (d)

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   Owing to the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, England ( Great Britain after 1707) was, until the 1920s, Portugal's main trading partner. The Methuen Treaty (1703) stipulated that Portuguese wines and English woolens would be exempt from custom duties. The imperial nationalist economic ideas of the Estado Novo directed Portuguese trade toward its Africa colonies of Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau. The historical importance of the British export market to Portuguese trade necessitated Portugal becoming a charter member of the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) in 1959.

   When Britain joined the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973, Portugal had to follow, with a trade agreement with the European Union (EU). Negotiations between Portugal and the EU produced an accord that stipulated mutual tariff reductions, until their disappearance in mid-1977 on industrial products, while EU member states were allowed to restrict some Portuguese textiles and paper and cork products. Tariffs were also reduced for Portuguese tinned tomatoes and fish, as well as for port wine. Since gaining full membership in the EU in 1986. Portugal's trade has shifted strongly toward continental EU member states. In the 1990s, EEC/EU member states purchased nearly 75 percent of Portugal's exports and supplied nearly 70 percent of its imports. Within the EEC/EU, Britain, Germany, France, and Spain are Portugal's a main trading partners. Portuguese trade with its former colonies fell sharply after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, as Portugal turned away from Africa and toward Europe.

   In 2007, Portugal's major commodity exports have been textiles, clothing, footwear, machinery, transportation equipment, paper and cork products, wine, tomato paste, chemicals, and plastic products. Portugal's comparative advantage lies in its low hourly costs for skilled labor, which are about 20 percent lower than other EU member states. Manufactured goods account for about 75 percent of merchandise imports; food and beverages about 10 percent; and raw materials (mainly petroleum) about 15 percent.

necessitated

necessitated

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Until the mid-nineteenth century, washing with soap and water was the only way to clean clothes. Around 1850 a kind of turpentine, camphene, began to be used (see J.B. Jolly- Bellin), but this necessitated taking the garments apart and resewing together after they had been cleaned. When benzene was introduced in 1866 by Pullars of Perth, Scotland, garments no longer needed to be taken apart. In 1897 Ludwig Anthelm of Leipzig started to use carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane); however this was found to corrode the equipment and was dangerous to breathe, and it was replaced in Britain with trichlorethylene in 1918.

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SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping, Public utilities, Weapons and armour

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The only son of a corn merchant, Alderman William Armstrong, he was educated at private schools in Newcastle and at Bishop Auckland Grammar School. He then became an articled clerk in the office of Armorer Donkin, a solicitor and a friend of his father. During a fishing trip he saw a water-wheel driven by an open stream to work a marble-cutting machine. He felt that its efficiency would be improved by introducing the water to the wheel in a pipe. He developed an interest in hydraulics and in electricity, and became a popular lecturer on these subjects. From 1838 he became friendly with Henry Watson of the High Bridge Works, Newcastle, and for six years he visited the Works almost daily, studying turret clocks, telescopes, papermaking machinery, surveying instruments and other equipment being produced. There he had built his first hydraulic machine, which generated 5 hp when run off the Newcastle town water-mains. He then designed and made a working model of a hydraulic crane, but it created little interest. In 1845, after he had served this rather unconventional apprenticeship at High Bridge Works, he was appointed Secretary of the newly formed Whittle Dene Water Company. The same year he proposed to the town council of Newcastle the conversion of one of the quayside cranes to his hydraulic operation which, if successful, should also be applied to a further four cranes. This was done by the Newcastle Cranage Company at High Bridge Works. In 1847 he gave up law and formed W.G.Armstrong \& Co. to manufacture hydraulic machinery in a works at Elswick. Orders for cranes, hoists, dock gates and bridges were obtained from mines; docks and railways.

Early in the Crimean War, the War Office asked him to design and make submarine mines to blow up ships that were sunk by the Russians to block the entrance to Sevastopol harbour. The mines were never used, but this set him thinking about military affairs and brought him many useful contacts at the War Office. Learning that two eighteen-pounder British guns had silenced a whole Russian battery but were too heavy to move over rough ground, he carried out a thorough investigation and proposed light field guns with rifled barrels to fire elongated lead projectiles rather than cast-iron balls. He delivered his first gun in 1855; it was built of a steel core and wound-iron wire jacket. The barrel was multi-grooved and the gun weighed a quarter of a ton and could fire a 3 lb (1.4 kg) projectile. This was considered too light and was sent back to the factory to be rebored to take a 5 lb (2.3 kg) shot. The gun was a complete success and Armstrong was then asked to design and produce an equally successful eighteen-pounder. In 1859 he was appointed Engineer of Rifled Ordnance and was knighted. However, there was considerable opposition from the notably conservative officers of the Army who resented the intrusion of this civilian engineer in their affairs. In 1862, contracts with the Elswick Ordnance Company were terminated, and the Government rejected breech-loading and went back to muzzle-loading. Armstrong resigned and concentrated on foreign sales, which were successful worldwide.

The search for a suitable proving ground for a 12-ton gun led to an interest in shipbuilding at Elswick from 1868. This necessitated the replacement of an earlier stone bridge with the hydraulically operated Tyne Swing Bridge, which weighed some 1450 tons and allowed a clear passage for shipping. Hydraulic equipment on warships became more complex and increasing quantities of it were made at the Elswick works, which also flourished with the reintroduction of the breech-loader in 1878. In 1884 an open-hearth acid steelworks was added to the Elswick facilities. In 1897 the firm merged with Sir Joseph Whitworth \& Co. to become Sir W.G.Armstrong Whitworth \& Co. After Armstrong's death a further merger with Vickers Ltd formed Vickers Armstrong Ltd.

In 1879 Armstrong took a great interest in Joseph Swan's invention of the incandescent electric light-bulb. He was one of those who formed the Swan Electric Light Company, opening a factory at South Benwell to make the bulbs. At Cragside, his mansion at Roth bury, he installed a water turbine and generator, making it one of the first houses in England to be lit by electricity.

Armstrong was a noted philanthropist, building houses for his workforce, and endowing schools, hospitals and parks. His last act of charity was to purchase Bamburgh Castle, Northumbria, in 1894, intending to turn it into a hospital or a convalescent home, but he did not live long enough to complete the work.

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SUBJECT AREA: Canals, Textiles

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Cosnier was probably an Angevin as he had property in Tours although he lived in Paris; his father was valet de chambre to King Henri IV. Although he qualified as an engineer, he was primarily a man of ideas. On 23 December 1603 he obtained a grant to establish silkworm breeding, or sericulture, in Poitou by introducing 100,000 mulberry plants, together with 200 oz (5.7 kg) of mulberry seed. He had 2,000 instruction leaflets on silkworm breeding printed, but his project collapsed when the Poitevins refused to co-operate. Cosnier then distributed the plants and seeds to other parts of France. The same year he approached Henri IV with the proposal to build a canal from the Loire to the Seine, partly via the Loing, from Briare to Montargis. On the king's acceptance of his proposal, Cosnier on 11 March 1604 undertook to complete the canal, which necessitated crossing the ridge between the two rivers, over a three-year period for 505,000 livres. The Canal de Briare, as it became known, with thirty-six locks including the flight of seven at Rogny, was almost complete in 1610; however, the death of Henri IV led to its abandonment. Cosnier offered to complete it at his own expense, but his offer was refused. Instead, his accounts were examined and it was found that he had already exceeded his authorized credits by 35,000 livres. In settlement, after some quibbling, he was awarded the two seigneuries of Trousse near Briare. Cosnier then suggested encircling the Paris suburbs with a canal which would not only be navigable but would also provide a water supply for fountains and drains. His proposal was accepted in 1618, but the works were never started. In the 1620s the marquis d'Effiet proposed the completion of the Canal de Briare and Cosnier was invited to resume work. Before anything more could be done Cosnier died, some time between July 1629 and March 1630, and the work was again abandoned. The canal was ultimately completed by Boutheroue in 1642, but the seven locks at Rogny remain a dramatic monument to Cosnier's ability.

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SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Educated at Truro Grammar School, he then studied under Dr Avery at Wadebridge to become a doctor of medicine. He settled as a surgeon in Wadebridge, spending his leisure time in building an organ and in the study of chemistry and mechanical science. He married Elizabeth Symons in 1814, and in 1820 moved with his wife to London. He delivered a course of lectures at the Surrey Institution on the elements of chemical science, attended by, amongst others, the young Michael Faraday. While there, Gurney made his first invention, the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. For this he received the Gold Medal of the Society of Arts. He experimented with lime and magnesia for the production of an illuminant for lighthouses with some success. He invented a musical instrument of glasses played like a piano.

In 1823 he started experiments related to steam and locomotion which necessitated taking a partner in to his medical practice, from which he resigned shortly after. His objective was to produce a steam-driven vehicle to run on common roads. His invention of the steam-jet of blast greatly improved the performance of the steam engine. In 1827 he took his steam carriage to Cyfarthfa at the request of Mr Crawshaw, and while there applied his steam-jet to the blast furnaces, greatly improving their performance in the manufacture of iron. Much of the success of George Stephenson's steam engine, the Rocket was due to Gurney's steam blast.

In July 1829 Gurney made a historic trip with his road locomotive. This was from London to Bath and back, which was accomplished at a speed of 18 mph (29 km/h) and was made at the instigation of the Quartermaster-General of the Army. So successful was the carriage that Sir Charles Dance started to run a regular service with it between Gloucester and Cheltenham. This ran for three months without accident, until Parliament introduced prohibitive taxation on all self-propelled vehicles. A House of Commons committee proposed that these should be abolished as inhibiting progress, but this was not done. Sir Goldsworthy petitioned Parliament on the harm being done to him, but nothing was done and the coming of the railways put the matter beyond consideration. He devoted his time to finding other uses for the steam-jet: it was used for extinguishing fires in coal-mines, some of which had been burning for many years; he developed a stove for the production of gas from oil and other fatty substances, intended for lighthouses; he was responsible for the heating and the lighting of both the old and the new Houses of Parliament. His evidence after a colliery explosion resulted in an Act of Parliament requiring all mines to have two shafts. He was knighted in 1863, the same year that he suffered a stroke which incapacitated him. He retired to his house at Reeds, near Bude, where he was looked after by his daughter, Anna.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Recording

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He developed recording equipment for. the Crystallate Gramophone Company, becoming Chief Recording Engineer at Decca when Crystallate was taken over. Eventually he was made Technical Director of Decca Record Company Ltd, a position he held until 1980. The developments of good cutterheads accelerated due to contract work for the armed services during the Second World War, because an extended frequency range was needed. This necessitated the solution of the problem of surface noise, and the result became known publicly as the ffrr system. The experience gained enabled Haddy to pioneer European Long Play recording. Haddy started development of a practical stereo record system within the Decca group, and for economic reasons he eventually chose a solution developed outside his direct surveillance by Teldec. The foresight of Decca made the company an equal partner in the standards discussions during the late 1950s, when it was decided to use the American 45/45 system, which utilized the two side walls of the groove. The same foresight had led Decca to record their repertoire in stereo from 1954 in order to prepare for any commercialized distribution system. In 1967 Haddy also became responsible for cassette manufacture, which meant organizing the logistics of a tape-duplication plant.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Hans Renold was educated at the cantonal school of his native town and at the Polytechnic in Zurich. He worked in two or three small workshops during the polytechnic vacations and served an apprenticeship of eighteen months in an engineering works at Neuchâtel, Switzerland. After a short period of military service he found employment as a draughtsman in an engineering firm at Saint-Denis, near Paris, from 1871 to 1873. In 1873 Renold moved first to London and then to Manchester as a draughtsman and inspector with a firm of machinery exporters. From 1877 to 1879 he was a partner in his own firm of machine exporters. In 1879 he purchased a small firm in Salford making chain for the textile industry. At about this time J.K.Starley introduced the "safety" bicycle, which, however, lacked a satisfactory drive chain. Renold met this need with the invention of the bush roller chain, which he patented in 1880. The new chain formed the basis of the precision chain industry: the business expanded and new premises were acquired in Brook Street, Manchester, in 1881. In the same year Renold became a naturalized British subject.

Continued expansion of the business necessitated the opening of a new factory in Brook Street in 1889. The factory was extended in 1895, but by 1906 more accommodation was needed and a site of 11 ½ acres was acquired in the Manchester suburb of Burnage: the move to the new building was finally completed in 1914. Over the years, further developments in the techniques of chain manufacture were made, including the invention in 1895 of the inverted tooth or silent chain. Renold made his first visit to America in 1891 to study machine-tool developments and designed for his own works special machine tools, including centreless grinding machines for dealing with wire rods up to 10 ft (3 m) in length.

The business was established as a private limited company in 1903 and merged with the Coventry Chain Company Ltd in 1930. Good industrial relations were always of concern to Renold and he established a 48-hour week as early as 1896, in which year a works canteen was opened. Joint consultation with shop stewards date2 from 1917. Renold was elected a Member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1902 and in 1917 he was made a magistrate of the City of Manchester.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Between 1777 and 1780 Soane studied in Italy on a Travelling Scholarship, working in Rome but also making extensive excursions further south to Paestum and Sicily to study the early and more severely simple Greek temples there.

His architectural career began in earnest with his appointment as Surveyor to the Bank of England in 1788. He held this post until 1833 and during this time developed his highly individual style, which was based upon a wide range of classical sources extending from early Greek to Byzantine themes. His own work became progressively more linear and austere, his domes and arches shallower and more segmental. During the 1790s and early 1800s Soane redesigned several halls in the Bank, notably the Bank Stock Office, which in 1791 necessitated technological experimentation.

The redesigning was required because of security problems which limited window openings to high-level positions and a need for fireproof construction because the site was so restricted. Soane solved the difficulties by introducing light through lunettes set high in the walls and through a Roman-style oculus in the centrally placed shallow dome. He utilized hollow terracotta pots as a lightweight material in the segmental vaulting.

Sadly, the majority of Soane's work in the Bank interior was lost in the rebuilding during the 1930s, but Soane went on to develop his architectural style in his houses and churches as well as in a quantity of public buildings in Whitehall and Westminster.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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T.W.Worsdell was the son of Nathaniel Worsdell. After varied training, which included some time in the drawing office of the London \& North Western Railway's Crewe Works, he moved to the Pennsylvania Railroad, USA, in 1865 and shortly became Master Mechanic in charge of its locomotive workshops in Altoona. In 1871, however, he accepted an invitation from F.W. Webb to return to Crewe as Works Manager: it was while he was there that Webb produced his first compound locomotive by rebuilding an earlier simple.

In 1881 T.W.Worsdell was appointed Locomotive Superintendent of the Great Eastern Railway. Working with August von Borries, who was Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Hannover Division of the Prussian State Railways, he developed a two-cylinder compound derived from the work of J.T.A. Mallet. Von Borries produced his compound 2–4–0 in 1880, Worsdell followed with a 4–4–0 in 1884; the restricted British loading gauge necessitated substitution of inside cylinders for the outside cylinders used by von Borries, particularly the large low-pressure one. T.W.Worsdell's compounds were on the whole successful and many were built, particularly on the North Eastern Railway, to which he moved as Locomotive Superintendent in 1885. There, in 1888, he started to build, uniquely, two-cylinder compound "single driver" 4–2–2s: one of them was recorded as reaching 86 mph (138 km/h). He also equipped his locomotives with a large side-window cab, which gave enginemen more protection from the elements than was usual in Britain at that time and was no doubt appreciated in the harsh winter climate of northeast England. The idea for the cab probably originated from his American experience. When T.W.Worsdell retired from the North Eastern Railway in 1890 he was succeeded by his younger brother, Wilson Worsdell, who in 1899 introduced the first 4– 6–0s intended for passenger trains in England.

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1. necessitated

2. necessitates

3. requested

4. required

5. requires

1. demanded

2. necessitated

3. required

ἱλασμός, οῦ, ὁ (s. prec. and next entry)

① appeasement necessitated by sin, expiation (τῶν θεῶν Orph., Arg. 39; Plut., Fab. 18, 3; cp. Plut., Sol. 12, 5. In these cases we have the pl., prob. referring to the individual actions to be expiated. But also sg.: Plut., Mor. 560d, Camill. 7, 5; Lev 25:9; Ps 129:4; Philo, Leg. All. 3, 174) εἰς ἱ. ἐμοί for my expiation GJs 1:1; so perh. abstr. for concr. of Jesus as the ἱ. περὶ τ. ἁμαρτιῶν ἡμῶν 1J 2:2; 4:10. But mng. 2 has been popular.

② instrument for appeasing, sacrifice to atone, sin-offering (Ezk 44:27 προσοίσουσιν ἱ. cp. Num 5:8; 2 Macc 3:33) s. above.—S. also lit. cited s.v. ἱλάσκομαι. DELG s.v. ἱλάσκομαι 1. M-M. TW.

"1. air, atmosphere. 2. weather. 3. climate. 4. the sky. 5. law air rights. 6. wind, breeze. 7. melody, tune, air. 8. mus. pitch of a note. 9. one´s pleasure, whim; mood, humor, state of mind. 10. atmosphere, prevailing emotional state. 11. style, style of expression. 12. environment, social environment. 13. nothing, bosh. 14. airs, affectation. -dan 1. free, for nothing, without any effort, as a windfall, out of the blue. 2. empty, worthless. -ya 1. upward, up. 2. uselessly, to no avail, in vain. - açmak/açılmak for the sky to clear. - akımı draft, draught, current of air in an enclosed space. - akını air raid, air attack. - almak 1. to breathe fresh air. 2. to absorb air, take in air. 3. slang to end up getting nothing, go home empty-handed. - atışı basketball jump ball. - atmak slang 1. to put on airs. 2. to speak claptrap. - basıncı atmospheric pressure. - basmak 1. /a/ to blow up, inflate. 2. slang to give oneself airs, blow oneself up. 3. slang to speak claptrap. - boşaltma makinesi vacuum pump. - boşluğu 1. air pocket, air hole, downdraft (as felt in an airplane). 2. air shaft, air well (in a building). - bozmak for the weather to turn stormy or rainy. -yı bozmak to dampen the spirits of a group. - bulanmak for the weather to turn rainy. -sını bulmak to begin to feel happy, get into a good mood. - cereyanı draft, draught, current of air in an enclosed space. - çarpmak /ı/ for the wind or weather to affect (someone), cause (someone) discomfort. - çekici pneumatic hammer, air hammer. - değişimi 1. change of air, moving to another climate for medical reasons. 2. change in the weather; climatic change. - değiştirmek to move to another climate for medical reasons. - deliği 1. ventilation hole. 2. ventilation conduit (in a building). - durumu weather conditions. - düzenleyicisi air conditioner. - filosu air fleet. - freni air brake, pneumatic brake. - geçirmez airtight, airproof, hermetically sealed. - gemisi airship, dirigible. -ya gitmek to be in vain, be wasted. -nın gözü yaşlı olmak to threaten rain. - haznesi mech. air chamber. (birine göre) - hoş olmak (for something) not to matter (to someone). - hukuku air law. - iyi/fena esmek for things to be going well/badly. - kabarcığı air bubble, bubble. - kaçırmak to lose air. -da kalmak 1. to be up too high. 2. to be up in the air, be left in suspense, not to come to a conclusion. 3. to be left unsupported or unproved. - kanalı air conduit. - kapağı air valve. - kapanmak for the sky to be overcast. - kararmak 1. for night to fall; to get dark. 2. for the sky to become heavily overcast, get dark. - kesesi zool. 1. air bladder, gas bladder, swim bladder. 2. air sac (in birds and insects). - keşfi mil. air reconnaissance. - kırılmak for cold weather to break; for weather to begin to warm up. - kirliliği/kirlenmesi air pollution. - korsanı skyjacker, air pirate. - köprüsü airlift. - kuvvetleri air force. - meydanı airfield, landing field; airport. -sı olmak (for someone) to have a warm, attractive personality. (birinde bir kimsenin) -sı olmak to have something about (her/him) which reminds one of (someone else), resemble (someone). - oyunu futures, speculative trading in futures. -ya pala/kılıç sallamak to waste one´s energy. - parası 1. key money, cash payment demanded of a new renter before he takes possession. 2. money paid beyond what can be shown on a receipt. - patlamak for a storm to break. - payı margin of safety. - raporu weather report. -ya savurmak /ı/ 1. to throw (something) up into the air. 2. to spend (money) foolishly, throw (money) to the winds. - sıkmak slang to be a bore; to be a pain. -dan sudan 1. at random, randomly, of this and that. 2. random, of a random nature. - tahmini weather forecast. - tahmin raporu weather report. - tebdili change of climate (necessitated by ill health). -ya uçmak to be blown up, be blown sky-high. -ya uçurmak /ı/ to blow (something) up. -sına uymak /ın/ to adap

,-ni change of climate (necessitated by ill health).