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experimental+psychology

  • 21 экологическая психология

    1. environmental psychology

     

    экологическая психология
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    EN

    environmental psychology
    A branch of experimental psychology which studies the relationships between behavior and the environmental context in which it occurs. Environmental psychology's primary focus is the influence of the physical environment and, therefore, much of the research in this area deals with the influences of noise, air pollution, climatic changes, etc. (Source: JMU)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

    Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > экологическая психология

  • 22 psychologi|a

    f sgt (GD psychologii) 1. Nauk. psychology
    - psychologia kliniczna/eksperymentalna clinical/experimental psychology
    - psychologia pracy industrial psychology
    2. Uniw. the psychology department

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > psychologi|a

  • 23 психологія

    ж

    Українсько-англійський словник > психологія

  • 24 functiepsychologie

    n. experimental psychology, psychology that is based on experience

    Holandés-inglés dicionario > functiepsychologie

  • 25 Институт экспериментальной психологии

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > Институт экспериментальной психологии

  • 26 экспериментальная психология

    Aviation medicine: experimental psychology

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > экспериментальная психология

  • 27 علم النفس التجريبي

    عِلْمُ النّفْسِ التّجْرِيبِيّ

    Arabic-English new dictionary > علم النفس التجريبي

  • 28 расхождение в пределах ошибerror ки опыта

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > расхождение в пределах ошибerror ки опыта

  • 29 экспериментальная психолингвистика

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > экспериментальная психолингвистика

  • 30 экспериментальный контроль

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > экспериментальный контроль

  • 31 psychologie expérimentale/sociale

    experimental/social psychology

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > psychologie expérimentale/sociale

  • 32 psychologie

    psychologie [psikɔlɔʒi]
    feminine noun
    * * *
    psikɔlɔʒi
    nom féminin ( discipline) psychology; ( intuition) (psychological) insight; ( mentalité) psychology
    * * *
    psikɔlɔʒi nf
    * * *
    1 ( discipline) psychology; psychologie du développement/sociale developmental/social psychology; licence de psychologie degree in psychology;
    2 ( intuition) (psychological) insight;
    3 ( mentalité) psychology.
    [psikɔlɔʒi] nom féminin
    1. [étude] psychology
    psychologie appliquée/comparative applied/comparative psychology
    psychologie expérimentale/sociale experimental/social psychology
    2. [intuition] perception
    3. [mentalité] psychology
    4. [dimension psychologique] psychology, mind

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > psychologie

  • 33 экспериментальные данные

    2) Chemistry: experimental data
    3) Mathematics: experimental information
    4) Railway term: experiment data
    7) Telecommunications: experimental findings
    8) Oil: evidence
    9) Astronautics: test information
    10) Geophysics: real data
    11) Advertising: test figures
    12) Automation: vital information
    13) Quality control: finding, testing data
    15) Psychoanalysis: experimental findings

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > экспериментальные данные

  • 34 экспериментальное воздействие

    2) Astronautics: experimental treatment
    3) Quality control: experimental exposure
    4) Aviation medicine: experimental exploration
    5) Psychoanalysis: experimental exposure

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > экспериментальное воздействие

  • 35 conejillo de indias

    guinea pig
    * * *
    masculino guinea pig
    * * *
    (n.) = guinea pig
    Ex. For my first example, let me take the problem of midstream changes in series, using as the guinea pig the series 'Advances in Experimental Social Psychology'.
    * * *
    masculino guinea pig
    * * *
    (n.) = guinea pig

    Ex: For my first example, let me take the problem of midstream changes in series, using as the guinea pig the series 'Advances in Experimental Social Psychology'.

    * * *
    guinea pig
    fueron los conejillo de Indiass de conejillo de Indias para probar la nueva droga they were used as o they were guinea pigs for the new drug
    * * *

    Del verbo dar: ( conjugate dar)

    dé es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente subjuntivo

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente subjuntivo

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) imperativo

    conejillo de Indias sustantivo masculino
    guinea pig
    ' conejillo de Indias' also found in these entries:
    English:
    guinea pig
    * * *
    conejillo de Indias n guinea pig

    Spanish-English dictionary > conejillo de indias

  • 36 inesperado

    adj.
    unexpected, out of the blue, spur-of-the-moment, sudden.
    * * *
    1 unexpected
    * * *
    (f. - inesperada)
    adj.
    * * *
    ADJ (=imprevisto) unexpected; (=repentino) sudden
    * * *
    - da adjetivo unexpected
    * * *
    = unannounced, unexpected, midstream, adventitious.
    Ex. The arrival of the school doctor or dentist or of well-knwon personalities visiting the school normally occur unannounced.
    Ex. The teacher should not give away any details which would be best enjoyed when met for the first time in a full reading, such as twist in the plot, unexpected endings, and the like.
    Ex. For my first example, let me take the problem of midstream changes in series, using as the guinea pig the series 'Advances in Experimental Social Psychology'.
    Ex. There are a number of these adventitious industries alive and well in the Northwest.
    ----
    * de forma inesperada = out of the blue, like a bolt out of the blue, like a bolt from the blue.
    * de modo inesperado = out of the blue, like a bolt out of the blue, like a bolt from the blue.
    * dinero inesperado = windfall, windfall moneys.
    * giro inesperado = twist.
    * ingresos inesperados = windfall.
    * pasar algo inesperado = things + take a turn for the unexpected.
    * ser un beneficio inesperado para = be a boon to.
    * vencedor inesperado = dark horse.
    * * *
    - da adjetivo unexpected
    * * *
    = unannounced, unexpected, midstream, adventitious.

    Ex: The arrival of the school doctor or dentist or of well-knwon personalities visiting the school normally occur unannounced.

    Ex: The teacher should not give away any details which would be best enjoyed when met for the first time in a full reading, such as twist in the plot, unexpected endings, and the like.
    Ex: For my first example, let me take the problem of midstream changes in series, using as the guinea pig the series 'Advances in Experimental Social Psychology'.
    Ex: There are a number of these adventitious industries alive and well in the Northwest.
    * de forma inesperada = out of the blue, like a bolt out of the blue, like a bolt from the blue.
    * de modo inesperado = out of the blue, like a bolt out of the blue, like a bolt from the blue.
    * dinero inesperado = windfall, windfall moneys.
    * giro inesperado = twist.
    * ingresos inesperados = windfall.
    * pasar algo inesperado = things + take a turn for the unexpected.
    * ser un beneficio inesperado para = be a boon to.
    * vencedor inesperado = dark horse.

    * * *
    unexpected
    se marchó de manera inesperada she left unexpectedly
    * * *

    inesperado
    ◊ -da adjetivo

    unexpected;
    de manera inesperada unexpectedly
    inesperado,-a adj (no esperado) unexpected: un encuentro inesperado, a chance meeting
    (no previsto) unforeseen: una inesperada alegría, an unforeseen state of happiness

    ' inesperado' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    batatazo
    - inesperada
    - vaivén
    - remezón
    English:
    dark horse
    - poof
    - suddenness
    - surprise
    - twist
    - unannounced
    - unexpected
    - unhoped-for
    - upset
    - freak
    - sudden
    * * *
    inesperado, -a adj
    unexpected;
    hacer algo de forma inesperada to do sth unexpectedly
    * * *
    adj unexpected
    * * *
    inesperado, -da adj
    : unexpected
    * * *
    inesperado adj unexpected

    Spanish-English dictionary > inesperado

  • 37 repentino

    adj.
    sudden, quick, unexpected, abrupt.
    * * *
    1 sudden
    * * *
    (f. - repentina)
    adj.
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) (=súbito) sudden; (=imprevisto) unexpected; [curva, vuelta] sharp
    2)

    tener repentina compasión — frm to be quick to pity

    * * *
    - na adjetivo sudden
    * * *
    = abrupt, sudden, midstream.
    Ex. There were abrupt fluctuations in his output from one week to the next.
    Ex. This situation has been severely aggravated by the sudden withdrawal of nearly a decade of federal largesse toward education and education-related activities.
    Ex. For my first example, let me take the problem of midstream changes in series, using as the guinea pig the series 'Advances in Experimental Social Psychology'.
    ----
    * aumento repentino = upsurge.
    * crecimiento repentino = growth spurt.
    * éxito repentino = overnight success.
    * fuego repentino = flash fire.
    * * *
    - na adjetivo sudden
    * * *
    = abrupt, sudden, midstream.

    Ex: There were abrupt fluctuations in his output from one week to the next.

    Ex: This situation has been severely aggravated by the sudden withdrawal of nearly a decade of federal largesse toward education and education-related activities.
    Ex: For my first example, let me take the problem of midstream changes in series, using as the guinea pig the series 'Advances in Experimental Social Psychology'.
    * aumento repentino = upsurge.
    * crecimiento repentino = growth spurt.
    * éxito repentino = overnight success.
    * fuego repentino = flash fire.

    * * *
    sudden
    fue una muerte repentina she died very suddenly, it was a sudden death
    * * *

    repentino
    ◊ -na adjetivo

    sudden
    repentino,-a adjetivo sudden

    ' repentino' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    bajón
    - flechazo
    - fulminante
    - repentina
    - súbito
    English:
    abrupt
    - appendicitis
    - overnight
    - snap
    - sudden
    - suddenness
    - surge
    - sharp
    * * *
    repentino, -a adj
    sudden;
    su muerte repentina sorprendió a todos her sudden death surprised everybody
    * * *
    adj sudden
    * * *
    repentino, -na adj
    : sudden
    * * *
    repentino adj sudden

    Spanish-English dictionary > repentino

  • 38 Mind

       It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)
       Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)
       The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)
       MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)
       [Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)
       Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)
       7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive Analyses
       Recent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....
       Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.
       In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.
       The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)
       Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.
    ... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Mind

  • 39 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 40 эксперимент

    1) General subject: experiment, pilot scheme
    2) Literal: trial trip
    3) Military: excursion, exercise
    4) Engineering: experimentation, tentative, try
    5) Mathematics: experimental game
    6) Forestry: verification
    7) Psychology: operation
    8) Geophysics: works
    9) Perfume: trial
    10) Ecology: procedure, test
    11) Advertising: experimental design, experimental procedure
    12) Quality control: tryout

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эксперимент

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