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121 sale
sale [seɪl]1 noun∎ to make a sale conclure une vente;∎ the sale of alcohol is forbidden la vente d'alcool est interdite;∎ sales of satellite TV dishes are growing les ventes d'antennes paraboliques sont en hausse;∎ the branch with the highest sales la succursale dont le chiffre d'affaires est le plus élevé;∎ I'm afraid that article is not for sale je regrette, cet article n'est pas à vendre;∎ to put sth up for sale mettre qch en vente;∎ our house is up for sale nous avons mis notre maison en vente;∎ on sale en vente;∎ on sale at a supermarket near you en vente dans tous les supermarchés;∎ we bought the goods on a sale or return basis nous avons acheté la marchandise à condition;∎ sale by private agreement vente f à l'amiable;∎ sale by sealed tender vente f par soumission cachetée;∎ sale with option of repurchase vente f avec faculté de rachat;∎ sale by auction vente f aux enchères∎ the January sales attract huge crowds les soldes de janvier attirent les foules;∎ the sales are on in London les soldes ont commencé à Londres;∎ I got it in a sale je l'ai acheté en solde;∎ closing-down sale liquidation f(goods) soldé(campaign, force, team) de vente; (promotion, forecasts) des ventes►► sales account compte m des ventes;sales acumen sens m du commerce;sales agent agent m commercial;sales assistant vendeur(euse) m,f;sales budget budget m commercial, budget m des ventes;American sales clerk vendeur(euse) m,f;sales conference conférence f du personnel des ventes;sales consultant conseiller(ère) m,f commercial(e);sales counter comptoir m de vente;sales department service m commercial, service m des ventes;sales director directeur(trice) m,f des ventes;sales drive campagne f de vente;sales engineer ingénieur m technico-commercial, ingénieur m commercial, ingénieur m des ventes;sales executive cadre m commercial;sales figures chiffre m de vente;sales literature brochures fpl publicitaires;sales manager directeur(trice) m,f commercial(e);sales and marketing vente-marketing f;sales and marketing director directeur(trice) m,f des ventes et du marketing;sales network réseau m de vente;sales objective objectif m de vente;sales outlet point m de vente;sales pitch arguments mpl de vente; (verbal) boniment m, argumentation f;sales policy politique f de vente;sales potential potentiel m de vente;sales projection prévision f des ventes;sales rep, sales representative représentant(e) m,f (de commerce);sales resistance réticence f de la part du consommateur;∎ our product met with some initial sales resistance le public n'a pas accepté notre produit tout de suite;American sales slip ticket m de caisse;sales staff personnel m de vente;sales support soutien m commercial;sales talk boniment m;sales target objectif m de vente;American sales tax TVA f;sales technique technique f de vente;sales tool instrument m de vente;sale of work vente f de charité -
122 Gantt, Henry Laurence
(1861–1919) Gen MgtU.S. mechanical engineer and consultant. Originated the Gantt chart, which was popularized by Wallace Clark in The Gantt Chart: a Working Tool of Management (1952). -
123 Henderson, Bruce
(1915–92) Gen MgtAustralian engineer and consultant. Founder of the Boston Consulting Group (1963), a firm that has specialized in corporate strategy and conceived the experience curve and the Boston Box. -
124 Alexanderson, Ernst Frederik Werner
[br]b. 25 January 1878 Uppsala, Swedend. ? May 1975 Schenectady, New York, USA[br]Swedish-American electrical engineer and prolific radio and television inventor responsible for developing a high-frequency alternator for generating radio waves.[br]After education in Sweden at the High School and University of Lund and the Royal Institution of Technology in Stockholm, Alexanderson took a postgraduate course at the Berlin-Charlottenburg Engineering College. In 1901 he began work for the Swedish C \& C Electric Company, joining the General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York, the following year. There, in 1906, together with Fessenden, he developed a series of high-power, high-frequency alternators, which had a dramatic effect on radio communications and resulted in the first real radio broadcast. His early interest in television led to working demonstrations in his own home in 1925 and at the General Electric laboratories in 1927, and to the first public demonstration of large-screen (7 ft (2.13 m) diagonal) projection TV in 1930. Another invention of significance was the "amplidyne", a sensitive manufacturing-control system subsequently used during the Second World War for controlling anti-aircraft guns. He also contributed to developments in electric propulsion and radio aerials.He retired from General Electric in 1948, but continued television research as a consultant for the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), filing his 321st patent in 1955.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsInstitution of Radio Engineers Medal of Honour 1919. President, IERE 1921. Edison Medal 1944.BibliographyPublications relating to his work in the early days of radio include: "Magnetic properties of iron at frequencies up to 200,000 cycles", Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (1911) 30: 2,443."Transatlantic radio communication", Transactions of the American Institute of ElectricalEngineers (1919) 38:1,269.The amplidyne is described in E.Alexanderson, M.Edwards and K.Boura, 1940, "Dynamo-electric amplifier for power control", Transactions of the AmericanInstitution of Electrical Engineers 59:937.Further ReadingE.Hawkes, 1927, Pioneers of Wireless, Methuen (provides an account of Alexanderson's work on radio).J.H.Udelson, 1982, The Great Television Race: A History of the American Television Industry 1925–1941, University of Alabama Press (provides further details of his contribution to the development of television).KFBiographical history of technology > Alexanderson, Ernst Frederik Werner
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125 Belidor, Bernard Forest de
SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour[br]b. 1698 Catalonia, Spaind. 8 September 1761 Paris, France[br]French engineer and founder of the science of modern ballistics.[br]Belidor was the son of a French army officer, who died when he was six months old, and was thereafter brought up by a brother officer. He soon demonstrated a scientific bent, and gravitated to Paris, where he became involved in the determination of the Paris meridian. He was then appointed Professor at the artillery school at La Fère, where he began to pursue the science of ballistics in earnest. He was able to disprove the popular theory that range was directly proportional to the powder charge, and also argued that the explosive power of a charge was greatest at the end of the explosion; he advocated spherical chambers in order to take advantage of this. His ideas made him unpopular with the "establishment", especially the Master of the King's artillery, and he was forced to leave France for a time, becoming a consultant to authorities in Bohemia and Bavaria. However, he was reinstated, and in 1758 he was appointed Royal Inspector of Artillery, a post that he held until his death.Belidor also made a name for himself in hydraulics and influenced design in this field for more than a century after his death. In addition, he was the first to make practical application of integral calculus.[br]BibliographyBelidor was the author of several books, of which the most significant were: 1739, La Science des ingénieurs, Paris (reprinted several times, the last edition being as late as 1830).1731, Le Bombardier françois, Paris: L'lmprimerie royale.1737, Architecture hydraulique, 2 vols, Paris.Further ReadingR.S.Kirby and P.G.Laurson, 1932, The Early History of Modern Civil Engineering, New Haven: Yale University Press (describes his work in the field of hydraulics).D.Chandler, 1976, The An of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, London: Batsford (mentions the ballistics aspect).CMBiographical history of technology > Belidor, Bernard Forest de
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126 Black, Harold Stephen
[br]b. 14 April 1898 Leominster, Massachusetts, USAd. 11 December 1983 Summitt, New Jersey, USA[br]American electrical engineer who discovered that the application of negative feedback to amplifiers improved their stability and reduced distortion.[br]Black graduated from Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts, in 1921 and joined the Western Electric Company laboratories (later the Bell Telephone Laboratories) in New York City. There he worked on a variety of electronic-communication problems. His major contribution was the discovery in 1927 that the application of negative feedback to an amplifier, whereby a fraction of the output signal is fed back to the input in the opposite phase, not only increases the stability of the amplifier but also has the effect of reducing the magnitude of any distortion introduced by it. This discovery has found wide application in the design of audio hi-fi amplifiers and various control systems, and has also given valuable insight into the way in which many animal control functions operate.During the Second World War he developed a form of pulse code modulation (PCM) to provide a practicable, secure telephony system for the US Army Signal Corps. From 1963–6, after his retirement from the Bell Labs, he was Principal Research Scientist with General Precision Inc., Little Falls, New Jersey, following which he became an independent consultant in communications. At the time of his death he held over 300 patents.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsInstitute of Electronic and Radio Engineers Lamme Medal 1957.Bibliography1934, "Stabilised feedback amplifiers", Electrical Engineering 53:114 (describes the principles of negative feedback).21 December 1937, US patent no. 2,106,671 (for his negative feedback discovery.1947, with J.O.Edson, "Pulse code modulation", Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 66:895.1946, "A multichannel microwave radio relay system", Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 65:798.1953, Modulation Theory, New York: D.van Nostrand.1988, Laboratory Management: Principles \& Practice, New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold.Further ReadingFor early biographical details see "Harold S. Black, 1957 Lamme Medalist", Electrical Engineering (1958) 77:720; "H.S.Black", Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Spectrum (1977) 54.KF -
127 Bramah, Joseph
SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Domestic appliances and interiors, Land transport, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Public utilities[br]b. 2 April 1749 Stainborough, Yorkshire, Englandd. 9 December 1814 Pimlico, London, England[br]English inventor of the second patented water-closet, the beer-engine, the Bramah lock and, most important, the hydraulic press.[br]Bramah was the son of a tenant farmer and was educated at the village school before being apprenticed to a local carpenter, Thomas Allot. He walked to London c.1773 and found work with a Mr Allen that included the repair of some of the comparatively rare water-closets of the period. He invented and patented one of his own, which was followed by a water cock in 1783. His next invention, a greatly improved lock, involved the devising of a number of special machine tools, for it was one of the first devices involving interchangeable components in its manufacture. In this he had the help of Henry Maudslay, then a young and unknown engineer, who became Bramah's foreman before setting up business on his own. In 1784 he moved his premises from Denmark Street, St Giles, to 124 Piccadilly, which was later used as a showroom when he set up a factory in Pimlico. He invented an engine for putting out fires in 1785 and 1793, in effect a reciprocating rotary-vane pump. He undertook the refurbishment and modernization of Norwich waterworks c.1793, but fell out with Robert Mylne, who was acting as Consultant to the Norwich Corporation and had produced a remarkably vague specification. This was Bramah's only venture into the field of civil engineering.In 1797 he acted as an expert witness for Hornblower \& Maberley in the patent infringement case brought against them by Boulton and Watt. Having been cut short by the judge, he published his proposed evidence in "Letter to the Rt Hon. Sir James Eyre, Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas…etc". In 1795 he was granted his most important patent, based on Pascal's Hydrostatic Paradox, for the hydraulic press which also incorporated the concept of hydraulics for the transmission of both power and motion and was the foundation of the whole subsequent hydraulic industry. There is no truth in the oft-repeated assertion originating from Samuel Smiles's Industrial Biography (1863) that the hydraulic press could not be made to work until Henry Maudslay invented the self-sealing neck leather. Bramah used a single-acting upstroking ram, sealed only at its base with a U-leather. There was no need for a neck leather.He also used the concept of the weight-loaded, in this case as a public-house beer-engine. He devised machinery for carbonating soda water. The first banknote-numbering machine was of his design and was bought by the Bank of England. His development of a machine to cut twelve nibs from one goose quill started a patent specification which ended with the invention of the fountain pen, patented in 1809. His coach brakes were an innovation that was followed bv a form of hydropneumatic carriage suspension that was somewhat in advance of its time, as was his patent of 1812. This foresaw the introduction of hydraulic power mains in major cities and included the telescopic ram and the air-loaded accumulator.In all Joseph Bramah was granted eighteen patents. On 22 March 1813 he demonstrated a hydraulic machine for pulling up trees by the roots in Hyde Park before a large crowd headed by the Duke of York. Using the same machine in Alice Holt Forest in Hampshire to fell timber for ships for the Navy, he caught a chill and died soon after at his home in Pimlico.[br]Bibliography1778, British patent no. 1177 (water-closet). 1784, British patent no. 1430 (Bramah Lock). 1795, British patent no. 2045 (hydraulic press). 1809, British patent no. 3260 (fountain pen). 1812, British patent no. 3611.Further ReadingI.McNeil, 1968, Joseph Bramah, a Century of Invention.S.Smiles, 1863, Industrial Biography.H.W.Dickinson, 1942, "Joseph Bramah and his inventions", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 22:169–86.IMcN -
128 Burks, Arthur Walter
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 13 October 1915 Duluth, Minnesota, USA[br]American engineer involved in the development of the ENIAC and Whirlwind computers.[br]After obtaining his AB degree from De Pere University, Wisconsin (1937), and his AM and PhD from the University of Michigan (1938 and 1941, respectively), Burks carried out research at the Moore School of Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, during the Second World War, and at the same time taught philosophy in another department. There, with Herman Goldstine, he was involved in the construction of ENIAC (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).In 1946 he took a post as Assistant Professor of Engineering at Michigan University, and subsequently became Associate Professor (1948) and Full Professor (1954). Between 1946 and 1948 he was also associated with the computer activities of John von Neumann at the Institute of Advanced Studies, Princeton, and was involved in the development of the Whirlwind I computer (the first stored-program computer) by Jay Forrester at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. From 1948 until 1954 he was a consultant for the Burroughs Corporation and also contributed to the Oak Ridge computer ORACLE. He was Chairman of the Michigan University Department of Communications Science in 1967–71 and at various times was Visiting Professor at Harvard University and the universities of Illinois and Stanford. In 1975 he became Editor of the Journal of Computer and System Sciences.[br]Bibliography1946. "Super electronic computing machine", Electronics Industry 62.1947. "Electronic computing circuits of the ENIAC", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 35:756.1980, "From ENIAC to the stored program computer. Two revolutions in computing", in N.Metropolis, J.Hewlett \& G.-C.Rota (eds), A History of Computing in the 20th Century, London: Academic Press.Further ReadingJ.W.Corlada, 1987, Historical Dictionary of Data Processing (provides further details of Burk's career).KF
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