company+bull

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace, Architecture and building, Horology, Weapons and armour

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Leonardo was the illegitimate son of a Florentine lawyer. His first sixteen years were spent with the lawyer's family in the rural surroundings of Vinci, which aroused in him a lifelong love of nature and an insatiable curiosity in it. He received little formal education but extended his knowledge through private reading. That gave him only a smattering of Latin, a deficiency that was to be a hindrance throughout his active life. At sixteen he was apprenticed in the studio of Andrea del Verrochio in Florence, where he received a training not only in art but in a wide variety of crafts and technical arts.

In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan, where he sought and obtained employment with Ludovico Sforza, later Duke of Milan, partly to sculpt a massive equestrian statue of Ludovico but the work never progressed beyond the full-scale model stage. He did, however, complete the painting which became known as the Virgin of the Rocks and in 1497 his greatest artistic achievement, The Last Supper, commissioned jointly by Ludovico and the friars of Santa Maria della Grazie and painted on the wall of the monastery's refectory. Leonardo was responsible for the court pageants and also devised a system of irrigation to supply water to the plains of Lombardy. In 1499 the French army entered Milan and deposed Leonardo's employer. Leonardo departed and, after a brief visit to Mantua, returned to Florence, where for a time he was employed as architect and engineer to Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna. Around 1504 he completed another celebrated work, the Mona Lisa.

In 1506 Leonardo began his second sojourn in Milan, this time in the service of King Louis XII of France, who appointed him "painter and engineer". In 1513 Leonardo left for Rome in the company of his pupil Francesco Melzi, but his time there was unproductive and he found himself out of touch with the younger artists active there, Michelangelo above all. In 1516 he accepted with relief an invitation from King François I of France to reside at the small château of St Cloux in the royal domain of Amboise. With the pension granted by François, Leonardo lived out his remaining years in tranquility at St Cloux.

Leonardo's career can hardly be regarded as a success or worthy of such a towering genius. For centuries he was known only for the handful of artistic works that he managed to complete and have survived more or less intact. His main activity remained hidden until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, during which the contents of his notebooks were gradually revealed. It became evident that Leonardo was one of the greatest scientific investigators and inventors in the history of civilization. Throughout his working life he extended a searching curiosity over an extraordinarily wide range of subjects. The notes show careful investigation of questions of mechanical and civil engineering, such as power transmission by means of pulleys and also a form of chain belting. The notebooks record many devices, such as machines for grinding and polishing lenses, a lathe operated by treadle-crank, a rolling mill with conical rollers and a spinning machine with pinion and yard divider. Leonardo made an exhaustive study of the flight of birds, with a view to designing a flying machine, which obsessed him for many years.

Leonardo recorded his observations and conclusions, together with many ingenious inventions, on thousands of pages of manuscript notes, sketches and drawings. There are occasional indications that he had in mind the publication of portions of the notes in a coherent form, but he never diverted his energy into putting them in order; instead, he went on making notes. As a result, Leonardo's impact on the development of science and technology was virtually nil. Even if his notebooks had been copied and circulated, there were daunting impediments to their understanding. Leonardo was left-handed and wrote in mirror-writing: that is, in reverse from right to left. He also used his own abbreviations and no punctuation.

At his death Leonardo bequeathed his entire output of notes to his friend and companion Francesco Melzi, who kept them safe until his own death in 1570. Melzi left the collection in turn to his son Orazio, whose lack of interest in the arts and sciences resulted in a sad period of dispersal which endangered their survival, but in 1636 the bulk of them, in thirteen volumes, were assembled and donated to the Ambrosian Library in Milan. These include a large volume of notes and drawings compiled from the various portions of the notebooks and is now known as the Codex Atlanticus. There they stayed, forgotten and ignored, until 1796, when Napoleon's marauding army overran Italy and art and literary works, including the thirteen volumes of Leonardo's notebooks, were pillaged and taken to Paris. After the war in 1815, the French government agreed to return them but only the Codex Atlanticus found its way back to Milan; the rest remained in Paris. The appendix to one notebook, dealing with the flight of birds, was later regarded as of sufficient importance to stand on its own. Four small collections reached Britain at various times during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; of these, the volume in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle is notable for its magnificent series of anatomical drawings. Other collections include the Codex Leicester and Codex Arundel in the British Museum in London, and the Madrid Codices in Spain.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Leonardo's true stature as scientist, engineer and inventor began to emerge, particularly with the publication of transcriptions and translations of his notebooks. The volumes in Paris appeared in 1881–97 and the Codex Atlanticus was published in Milan between 1894 and 1904.

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LRD / IMcN

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сделка customer forward transaction сделка с клиентом на срок customer forward transaction срочная сделка с клиентом customer forward transaction форвардная сделка с клиентом customer transaction сделка с клиентом documentary credit transaction сделка с документарным аккредитивом dollar transaction сделка за доллары dollar transaction торговая операция за доллары dummy transaction фиктивная сделка economic transaction сделка effect a transaction осуществлять сделку exchange transaction валютная операция exempt transaction освобождать сделку от налогообложения exempt transaction сделка, освобожденная от налогообложениян export transaction экспортная сделка fictitious transaction фиктивная операция fictitious transaction фиктивная сделка financial transaction финансовая операция financial transaction финансовая сделка financing transaction финансовая операция financing transaction финансовая сделка foreign exchange transaction валютная операция foreign exchange transaction валютная сделка foreign transaction зарубежная сделка forward exchange transaction форвардная валютная сделка forward transaction бирж. сделка на срок forward transaction бирж. форвардная сделка forward-forward transaction бирж. сделка "форвард-форвард" futures transaction операция на срок, срочная операция futures transaction бирж. сделка на срок futures transaction бирж. срочная сделка giro transaction операция в системе жиросчетов goods transaction товарная сделка hedging transaction бирж. хедж illegal transaction противозаконная сделка instalment transaction сделка с оплатой в рассрочку intercompany transaction межфирменная сделка interest arbitrage transaction сделка с процентным арбитражем intergroup transaction межфирменная сделка internal transaction бухгалтерская операция internal transaction бухгалтерская проводка internal transaction внутренняя хозяйственная операция investment transaction инвестиционная сделка irregular transaction незаконная сделка legal transaction законная сделка linked transaction связанная операция loan transaction кредитная сделка margin transaction бирж. сделка с маржой merchandise transaction торговая операция merchandise transaction торговая сделка mock transaction имитация операции monetary transaction валютная операция monetary transaction валютная сделка monetary transaction денежная операция monetary transaction денежная сделка nonrecurrent transaction разовая сделка option transaction бирж. опционная сделка payment transaction платеж payment transaction платежная операция profitable transaction выгодная сделка protected transaction защищенная сделка reinsurance transaction операция перестрахования repurchase transaction операция обратной покупки revenue generating transaction сделка, дающая доход routine transaction текущая операция secured transaction обеспеченная сделка securities transaction сделка с ценными бумагами security transaction сделка с ценными бумагами setoff transaction компенсационная сделка sham transaction фиктивная операция sham transaction фиктивная сделка significant inter-company transaction важная сделка между фирмами simulated transaction фиктивная сделка single transaction одиночная сделка speculative transaction спекулятивная сделка spot exchange transaction биржевая сделка с немедленной оплатой spot exchange transaction биржевая сделка с расчетом наличными spot transaction кассовая сделка spot transaction сделка за наличные spot transaction сделка на наличный товар stock market transaction фондовая операция stock-exchange transaction фондовая операция stock-exchange transaction фондовая сделка swap transaction бартерная сделка swap transaction меновая торговля swap transaction своп на валютном рынке swap transaction товарообменная сделка switch transaction валютная спекуляция на курсовой разнице switch transaction ликвидация обязательства по сдаче одних ценных бумаг и одновременная запродажа других switch transaction операция по использованию клирингового счета switch transaction переуступка третьей стране остатка на клиринговом счете transaction ведение (дела) transaction ведение (деловых операций) transaction ведение дел transaction дело; сделка transaction дело transaction мировая сделка transaction операция transaction сделка transaction вчт. транзакция transaction pl труды, протоколы (научного общества) transaction урегулирование спора путем компромисса transaction урегулирование спора путем соглашения сторон transaction юр. урегулирование спора путем соглашения сторон или компромисса transaction for actual performance бирж. текущая сделка transaction for forward delivery бирж. форвардная сделка transaction for joint account сделка за общий счет transaction for purpose of speculation спекулятивная сделка transaction in fulfilment of obligation мировая сделка на основе выполнения обязательства transaction of payments производство платежа transaction on account биржевая сделка, подлежащая урегулированию в следующем расчетном периоде underlying transaction основная операция unilateral transaction односторонняя сделка void transaction сделка, не имеющая юридической силы voidable transaction сделка, которая может быть аннулирована в силу определенных причин